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. 2024 Aug 24;15(3):101080. doi: 10.1016/j.jpha.2024.101080

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© 2024 The Author(s)

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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Fig. 2 — Halofuginone (HF) activates serine/threonine protein kinase Unc-51 like kinase 1 (ULK1) by inducing downregulation of its phosphorylation site. By combining serine/threonine kinase proteins (Akt)/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) with the wingless/integrated (Wnt)/β-catenin signaling pathway, autophagic flux is induced under conditions that are rich in nutrients. LRP: leucine-responsive regulatory protein; APC: antigen-presenting cell; CK1α: casein kinase 1 alpha; GSK-3β: glycogen synthase kinase-3β; 4EBP1: recombinant human eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1; HK-II: human kidney-2; NADP: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; NADPH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen; ROS: reactive oxidative stress; GPI: glucose phosphate isomerase; PEP: phosphoenolpyruvate; PGAL: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate; TCF: transcription factor; LEF: lymphoid enhancer factor; EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition.