Table 1.
Molecular mechanisms of halofuginone (HF) induced the inhibition of various cancers.
| Molecular mechanisms | Types of cancer | Signal pathways | Crucial molecules | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| TGF-β and ROS | Lung | TGF-β/BMP | BMP | [13] |
| TGF-β and ROS | Lung | TGF-β/Smad4, 7 | Smad4 | [25] |
| TGF-β and ROS | Lung | TGF-β/EMT | Vimentin | [26,27] |
| TGF-β and ROS | Lung | TGF-β | TGF-β | [28] |
| TGF-β and ROS | Osteosarcoma | TGF-β/Smad3 | Smad3 | [29,30] |
| TGF-β and ROS | Melanoma | TGF-β/Smad3, 7 | CTGF and CXCR4 | [31] |
| TGF-β and ROS | All | TGF-β/Nrf2 | Nrf2 | [32] |
| TGF-β and ROS | All | TGF-β/Smad3 | TGF-β | [32] |
| TGF-β and ROS | Pancreatic | Nrf2-ALDH3A1 | ALDH3A1 | [33] |
| Apoptosis and autophagy | Colorectal | Akt/mTORC1 | Akt and mTORC1 | [34] |
| Apoptosis and autophagy | All | LKB1 and AMPK | AMPK, Akt, and mTORC1 | [[35], [36], [37], [38]] |
| Apoptosis and autophagy | All | Akt/mTORC1 | STMN1 and p53 | [39] |
| Apoptosis and autophagy | Breast | STMN1 and p53 | Wnt and β-catenin | [40,41] |
| Apoptosis and autophagy | Breast | Wnt and β-catenin | Lnc-RNAs | [41] |
| Exosomes | All | Lnc-RNAs/ROR | miRNAs | [[42], [43], [44], [45]] |
| Exosomes | All | miRNAs | miR-31 | [[46], [47], [48], [49]] |
| TGF-β and ROS | Breast | miR-31 and HDAC2 | TGF-β | [50] |
| Exosomes | Pancreatic | TGF-β/Smad3 | Akt/mTOR | [51] |
| Other mechanisms | ESCC | Akt/mTOR | ER-α and PR | [52] |
| Other mechanisms | UTLM | ER-α and PR | PLTP | [53,54] |
| Other mechanisms | Leiomyoma | MAPK and SRC | MAPK | [55] |
TGF-β: transforming growth factor-β; BMP: bone morphogenetic protein; EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition; ROS: reactive oxidative stress; CTGF: connective tissue growth factor; CXCR4: chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 4; Nrf2: nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; ALDH3A1: aldehyde dehydrogenase 3 family member A1; Akt: serine/threonine kinase proteins; mTORC1: mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1; LKB1: liver kinase B1; AMPK: adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase; STMN1: recombinant Stathmin 1; Wnt: wingless/integrated; Lnc-RNAs: long-noncoding RNAs; ROR: receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 1; miRNAs: microRNAs; HDAC2: histone deacetylase 2; mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin; ESCC: esophageal squamous cell carcinoma; ER-α: estrogen receptor-α; PR: progesterone receptor; UTLM: uterine leiomyoma; PLTP: plasma phospholipid transfer protein; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; SRC: sarcoma.