Table 1.
Summary of findings from cash transfer studies on child and adolescent mental health in the United States
| Study | Type of cash transfer | Sample | Mental health measure | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Averett and Wang (2018) | EITC |
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Child and Young Adult sample from 1993 to 1998 n = 7,328 Age: M = 7.53, SD = 3.68 |
BPI | Null: The 1993 expansion was not associated with declines in children's emotional and behavioural health problems |
| Batra and Hamad (2021) | EITC |
National Health Interview Survey from 1998 to 2016 n = 172,281 Age: 2–17‐year‐olds |
CBCL (adapted) and SDQ | Null: Children whose families were interviewed shortly after receiving the refund did not have significantly lower levels of emotional and behavioural problems compared with children whose families were interviewed at other times of the year |
| Hamad and Rehkopf (2016) | EITC |
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Child and Young Adult sample n = 8,186 Age: 4–14‐year‐olds |
BPI | Positive: Relatively larger EITC payments in a given year were associated with significantly lower child emotional and behavioural problems at 2 years (but not 4 years) follow‐up |
|
Dalve et al. (2022) |
EITC |
Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance System between 2005 and 2019 n = 26–46 states Age: 9–12th graders |
Youth violence | Positive: Youth violence was significantly lower in states with more generous EITC credits |
| Rostad et al. (2020) | CTC |
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) and the NLSY79 Child and Young Adult Survey n = 11,521 Age: 4–17 years |
BPI | Positive: Changes to the CTC in 2009 (making it partially refundable for families earning as little as $3,000) were associated with reductions in children's emotional and behavioural problems |
| Costello et al. (2003) | Casino profits for tribal members |
Great Smoky Mountain Study n = 1,420 Age: 9, 11 or 13 years old in 1993; comparison of psychiatric symptoms from before the casino opened (1993–1996) to after (1997–2000) |
CAPA | Positive: Native American adolescents whose families were lifted out of poverty by the opening of the casino showed a significant decrease in mean levels of psychiatric symptoms. In contrast, mean levels of psychiatric symptoms remained high for Native American children whose families were not lifted out of poverty and low for those whose families were never in poverty |
| Costello et al. (2010) | Casino profits for tribal members |
Great Smoky Mountain Study n = 1,420 Age: 12, 14 or 16 years old in 1996; psychiatric assessment at 19 or 21 years |
CAPA and YAPA | Positive: Receipt of profits was associated with a reduced risk of any psychiatric disorder (particularly, alcohol and cannabis use disorders) with the strongest effects observed amongst the youngest cohort who had the longest exposure to increased income |
| Akee et al. (2010) | Casino profits for tribal members |
Great Smoky Mountain Study n = 1,420 Age: 9, 11 or 13 years old in 1993; crime measured from age 16 to 21 years |
Crime, measured by North Carolina Administrative Office of the Courts | Positive: Casino profits were associated with reduced risk of engaging in minor criminal offenses and drug dealing |
| Morris et al. (2017) | CCT |
Family Rewards; 262 program group 249 control group; Age: M = 16.6 years, SD = 0.83) |
BASC Items measuring minor delinquency, aggression, and substance use |
Null: No impact on self‐reported depression or anxiety symptoms Positive: Adolescents in the treatment group engaged in significantly less aggressive behaviour, alcohol and marijuana use, and had fewer friends who drank alcohol or used marijuana compared with adolescents in the control group |
| Pilkauskas et al. (2023) | UCT |
7,915 cash group 5,777 control group |
Modified CBCL | Null: Although the $1,000 payment reduced material hardship at 1 month amongst the lowest‐income families, the payment was not associated with reductions in child problem behaviours |
BASC, Behavioural Assessment System for Children; BPI, Behaviour Problems Index; CAPA, Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment; CBCL, Child Behaviour Checklist; CCT, Conditional Cash Transfer; EITC, Earned Income Tax Credit; SDQ, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; UCT, Unconditional Cash Transfer; YAPA, Young Adult Psychiatric Assessment.