Figure 3.

Findings for moderators of the association of SES with executive function (A), language (B), and academic achievement (C). Number of studies that found a protective effect versus increased risk. A protective effect is one that reduces the association between low SES and lower academic achievement and a risk effect is one that strengthens it. SSS = composite measures that capture stress, support, and stimulation (the risk effect was observed for single‐parent status). BCF = broader contextual factors in the form of academic support and neighborhood resources