Table 3.
inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis and comorbidity.
| Mechanism | Paw | Joint | Plasma/Serum |
Brain |
Liver | Spinal cord | Reference | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cortex | hippocampus | amygdala | Whole brain | |||||||
| Inflammation | ||||||||||
| TNF-α | / | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | / | / | / | / | ↑ | 22, 30, 35, 47, 59, 66, 69 |
| IL−6 | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | 22, 30, 47, 59, 66, 69 | |||||
| IL−1β | / | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↔ | 35, 59, 66, 57 | ||||
| / | ↔ | / | / | / | 12 | |||||
| COX−2 | ↑ | ↑ | 12, 47 | |||||||
| NF-kB | ↑ | / | / | ↑ | 33, 35, 49 | |||||
| p-IKBa | ↑ | ↑ | 49 | |||||||
| Oxidative stress | ||||||||||
| MDA | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | / | / | / | ↑ | ↑ | / | 30, 47 |
| SOD | / | ↑ | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | 30, 47 | ||||
| GSH | ↓ | ↑ | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | 30, 47 | ||||
| Nitrite | ↑ | / | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | 47 | ||||
| MPO | ↓ | / | / | / | 47 | |||||
| 4-HNE | ↑ | ↑ | 49 | |||||||
| Apoptotic | ||||||||||
| Bcl−2-like protein 4 | ↑ | / | / | / | ↓ | ↑ | / | / | / | 49 |
| BAX | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | 49, 59 | ||||||