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. 2025 Mar 8;17(2):plaf013. doi: 10.1093/aobpla/plaf013

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© The Author(s) 2025. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Annals of Botany Company.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Alt Text: Graphical representation of the three levels of soil heterogeneity with large, medium, or small patch size, and the four plant species (E. nutans, F. sinensis, P. pratensis, and V. unijuga, labelled as EN, FS, PP, and VU, respectively), growing either in monocultures or in mixtures with two of them growing together. — Setup of the experiment, top view and side view of the three levels of soil heterogeneity are presented, with large, medium and small patches arranged from the left to the right. Vermiculite and fertile soil are indicated by black and white colour, while the grey colour represents the mixture of these two substrates. E. nutans, F. sinensis, P. pratensis, and V. unijuga are labelled as EN, FS, PP, and VU, respectively.