Abstract
Konjac is a perennial herbaceous plant from the Araceae family’s Amorphophallus genus. It has high nutritional, health, and pharmacological values. It contains various bioactive components, the most notable of which is konjac glucomannan, which has several biological roles, including efficiently fighting diabetes, exerting prebiotic activity, containing antioxidant capacity, modulating immunological function, and demonstrating anti-cancer potential. Currently, the konjac glucomannan (KGM) research mainly focuses on packaging film, gel characteristics, efficacy, and evaluation. However, the extraction, underlying portrayal, derivatization, and action of KGM are seldom detailed. Herein, the utilization of konjac as an unrefined substance was surveyed, meaning to give extensive and orderly recombinant data on the extraction, decontamination, structure, natural movement, derivatization, and use of KGM to provide a full play to the interesting gelatinate, biocompatibility, high viscosity and other properties of KGM. It provided a theoretical basis for further developing the konjac glucomannan food industry, pharmaceutical field, and other fields.
Keywords: Activity, Application, Extraction, Konjac glucomannan, Structure
1. Introduction
Polysaccharides are a class of macromolecule mixes that are typically found in nature, primarily in plants, microbes, green growth, animals, etc [1]. Konjac is a plant that belongs to the Tennessee family. It originated mostly in Asia, and its edible subterranean bulb is its most notable feature. Konjac is commonly used to make noodles, bean curd, and other treats in regular weight-loss regimens. Konjac is a low-calorie meal that can increase fullness and decrease appetite, which has significant weight loss advantages. Polysaccharides, rough fiber, solvent protein, fat, and other dynamic fixings are abundant in konjac. A new type of beneficial sugar, konjac, is a white powder that is dark and dreary, and it has the largest amount of glucomannan, which is the delegate of polysaccharides. Glucomannan is a type of dietary fiber that is hydrophilic and colloidal in nature [2]. Thermally irreversible gelling and strong consistency building are two of konjac glucomannan's unique colloidal qualities. It can be applied to food handling tasks such as thickeners and gelling experts [3] for binders for sausages, jellies, and syrups [4]. Furthermore, konjac glucomannan exhibits excellent gelation characteristics in ethanol-soluble frameworks [5]. It has a high gel-framing capability, biocompatibility, low toxicity, and soundness. Polysaccharides exhibit remarkable dedication in food, medicine, and other industries because of their distinct physical and chemical qualities and few adverse effects. Currently, the derivatization field of KGM has not received widespread and sustained attention from academics. Despite numerous studies on KGM's biological activity and wide range of applications in recent years, including the food industry and medical health, the full potential value and application prospects of KGM and its derivatives have yet to be fully and deeply explored. Herein, the recent research results on konjac glucomannan in terms of preparation, derivatization, structural characterization, biological activity, and application were reviewed, with the goal of providing a solid theoretical foundation for future konjac glucomannan research and application. The konjac is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Konjac.
2. Preparation
The extraction of polysaccharides can now be accomplished using a variety of high-level extraction techniques, such as manufactured extraction methods, enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE), ultrasonic-microwave synergistic extraction (UMSE), subcritical water extraction (SWE), pulse electric field-assisted extraction (PEFAE), aqueous two-phase extraction (ATPE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and alternative innovative extraction methodologies [6]. Konjac glucomannan can be separated and purified using both dry and wet processes [7]. The dry cycle involves cleaning, stripping, cutting, fixing, drying, and grinding air screening of the dried konjac for purification [8], however, the resulting konjac flour is not of good quality. On the other side, wet handling uses substantial, pricy natural solvents, like alcohol, to prevent solubilization and limit the growth of konjac glucan. Chemical reagents and synthetic chemicals including ethanol, aluminum sulfate (flocculant), amylase, lead-acid corrosive inducer, and 2-propanol [9] are examples of synthetic handling techniques. Compound hydrolyzed starch is considered a debasement in food products, and lead-acid corrosive inducer is unappetizing, which limits its use in the food industry. Ultrasonic extraction, microwave-assisted acidic extraction, boiling water extraction, corrosive extraction, and ethanol extraction are a few of the frequently used extraction methods for KGM. The characteristics and cleanliness of KGM eliminated by different methods are displayed in Table 1. In Table 2 compares the advantages and downsides of several polysaccharide extraction methods.
Table 1.
Extraction of KGM.
| Extraction method | Physical properties | Purity | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hot water extraction | − | 50 %-65 % | [10] |
| Ethanol extraction | − | 80 %-95 % | [11] |
| The purity is 90 % and the viscosity is 42.30 Pa·s | 90 % | [12] | |
| Water extraction and alcohol precipitation | The molecular weight of PKF1 and PKF2 are 9.1 ± 0.6 × 105 g/mol-1 and 9.5 ± 0.6 × 105 g/mol-1 | 91.4 ± 1.3 % | [13] |
| The purity is 90.98 %, the viscosity is 27,940 cps, and the transparency is 57.74 % | 90.98 % | [14] |
Table 2.
Comparison of advantages and disadvantages of extraction methods.
| Method | Advantage | Shortcomings |
|---|---|---|
| Hot water extraction（HWE) | ① The equipment is simple, easy to use, inexpensive; ② Ecologically friendly, energy-efficient; ③ Appropriate for large-scale industrial production |
|
| Enzyme assisted extraction （EAE) |
|
|
| Microwave-assisted extraction（MAE) |
|
|
| Ultrasonic-assisted extraction（UAE) |
|
|
| Ultrasonic-assisted water extraction （UAWE） | ① Ultrasound destroys cell walls and membranes, releasing polysaccharides and resulting in a high product extraction rate; ② The operation is easy and the technology is efficient, energy-saving, and cost-effective, making it ideal for large-scale production |
① The duration of ultrasound should be limited since it can cause polysaccharide chain breaking, reducing polysaccharide output; ② The equipment expenditures for ultrasound-assisted extraction are quite substantial |
| Microwave-enzymatic extraction (MEE) | ① Microwave radiation has a significant penetrating ability, allowing it to break down cell walls and liberate polysaccharides; ② Enzymes can specifically breakdown cell wall components, which promotes polysaccharide release. ③ High extraction efficiency, Low time consumption; ④ Microwave heating is fast and homogeneous in temperature distribution, minimizing the breakdown of polysaccharide structures caused by local overheating in other heating methods; ⑤Enzymes' selective catalytic action also lowers non-specific damage to polysaccharide structures, hence preserving polysaccharide biological activity |
① Microwave equipment and enzyme preparations are relatively expensive; ② Improper parameter settings, such as microwave power, exposure time, enzyme dosage, and enzyme type can all have an impact on polysaccharide extraction efficiency and activity |
| Ultrasonic – microwave extraction (UME) | ① It takes less time, allows for larger sample sizes, and is less susceptible to solvents; ② The cavitation impact of ultrasound can disrupt cell walls and membranes, whereas microwaves have a great penetration ability, rapidly heating the interior of cells to produce cell wall rupture, resulting in high extraction efficiency; ③ When carried done at lower temperatures, it aids in the preservation of polysaccharide biological activity; ④ The synergistic effect of ultrasound and microwaves helps to remove contaminants from polysaccharides, increasing the quality of the extract |
① Ultrasound and microwave equipment are relatively expensive; ② Excessive power or continuous exposure might still harm the polysaccharide structure |
| Ultrasonic assisted – enzyme extraction (UAE) | ① The cavitation action and mechanical vibration of ultrasonic waves break cell structures, increasing polysaccharide release; ② Enzymes precisely breakdown the components of cell walls, speeding polysaccharide release and considerably increasing extraction efficiency; ③ Ultrasonic extraction acts at low temperatures, which prevents the breakdown of polysaccharide structures while conserving polysaccharide activity; ④ The selective catalytic action of enzymes lowers nonspecific damage |
① The employment of ultrasonic equipment and enzymes raises the expense of the extraction procedure; ② Excessive ultrasonic power or prolonged exposure duration may still cause damage to the polysaccharide structure, resulting in diminished polysaccharide yield or biological activity; ③ To ensure that the enzymes remain stable, these parameters must be closely controlled |
| High-pressure pulse extraction (HPPE) |
|
① High-pressure beat gear could pose special risks； ② The extraction component is not yet fully understood and requires further investigation; ③ Sbstantial-pressure beat extraction equipment is often complex, with substantial investment and maintenance expenses |
| Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) |
|
|
| Aqueous two-phase extraction (ATPE) | ① The interface tension of the aqueous two-phase system is low, allowing mass transfer between the two phases and resulting in high extraction efficiency; ② The operating conditions are mild, and the technique is straightforward |
① It is susceptible to emulsification, which reduces the separation efficiency of the two phases; ② The polymers required to create the aqueous two-phase system, such as dextran, are rather expensive |
| Subcritical water extraction (SWE) | ① Compared to traditional methods, subcritical water extraction can extract more active ingredients with a higher yield; ② By controlling the temperature and pressure of subcritical water, the polarity of water can be altered, allowing selective extraction of organic compounds with different polarities; ③ Subcritical water extraction technology can save energy and water compared to traditional methods |
① Due to the necessity to meet particular temperature and pressure regulations, equipment costs and maintenance expenses are relatively high; ② Polysaccharides may become unstable or even breakdown under high temperatures and pressures |
2.1. Ultrasonic extraction and hot water extraction methods
Glucomannan is the major hemicellulose component of konjac cell walls, located primarily beneath the epidermis. The organic mobility of polysaccharides varies depending on the level of ultrasonic activity. Acoustic cavitation generates great focal shear power and high temperatures, causing polysaccharides to degrade, which might affect the physicochemical qualities and natural activity of polysaccharides in food. In vitro and in vivo examinations, an assortment of ultrasound-treated polysaccharides demonstrated increased cell reinforcement, anticoagulant, anticancer, calming, and prebiotic activity properties [15], prompting the growing application of ultrasonic innovation in the utilitarian modification of polysaccharides. The cavitation action of ultrasound can destroy the cell wall and accelerate the dissolution of polysaccharide molecules [16]. The ultrasonic extraction process is efficient, takes a short time, and uses a low temperature, which reduces the possibility of polysaccharide debasement due to high temperatures. However, focused energy ultrasound may disrupt some of the subatomic patterns of polysaccharides, affecting their quality and activity. The ultrasonic extraction of KGM was less investigated because its production is highly mechanized and easily accessible on the market.
Temp water extraction is restricted to extricating extracellular polysaccharides because boiling water is wasteful at disturbing cell walls [6]. In principle, most polysaccharides have a higher solubility in hot water, and polysaccharides are relatively stable in hot water. Researchers [10] dried and squished konjac, then rinsed it with naturally dissolvable sodium metabisulfite before drying it. The liquid concentrate was produced using ethanol precipitation and bubbling water extraction. Konjac glucomannan was obtained using protein ejection and section chromatography division with a yield of half 65 %. The heated water extraction approach is simple to use, inexpensive, requires basic equipment, and does little damage to the polysaccharide structure. However, compared to ultrasonic-assisted extraction and microwave-assisted extraction, the hot water extraction method takes a longer time, and compared to enzymatic extraction, it has a relatively lower extraction rate.
2.2. Ethanol precipitation method
The ethanol precipitation technique is the most well-known and ideal for KGM extraction due to its ease of use, mild conditions, high recovery, and appropriateness for large-scale manufacturing. Researchers [17] extruded and crushed konjac in low-temperature, anaerobic conditions, effectively lowering polyphenol oxidase levels, limiting browning, and increasing glucomannan impurity shedding swelling. An equal volume of edible ethanol (60 %-65 %) was added to the konjac pomace, causing contaminants to precipitate and glucomannan to accumulate. Next, the konjac flour was washed with an aqueous ethanol solution to remove the microfine powder on the surface and contaminants within the particles [18].Following washing, konjac flour was milled and separated with a rotary gas separator. Using air order innovation with a twister separator, starch, and other debasements can be removed to produce glucomannan cases with a higher virtue, ranging from 60 % to 70 % [19]. Additional washing can result in glucomannan content ranging from 80 % to 95 %. Furthermore, the crude konjac glucomannan was constantly refined by gradually increasing the ethanol concentration and using ultrasonic to achieve the pure form [11]. Another researcher [12] purified konjac glucomannan by altering the temperature and using the phase separation method. The best temperature for the experiment was 68℃. The resulting konjac glucomannan product was exceptionally transparent and pure, with a purity of 90 %, and the viscosity was 42.30 Pa·s.
2.3. Water extraction and alcohol precipitation
Researchers [14] used two ways to separate glucomannan from young tubers of Mucuna pruriens: Al2(SO4)3 as a flocculant in aqueous solution treatment, followed by ethanol cleaning and continuing crushing using ethanol and glucomannan atom filtration to extract them. The main approach was mixing sliced tubers in a sodium metabisulfite. The arrangement was stirred and heated, then Al2(SO4)3 was added to react for a while before the supernatant was centrifuged and filtered by 96 % ethanol precipitation, filtering, drying, and processing. In the subsequent strategy, konjac tubers were cut and processed in ethanol at roughly 12.000 rpm for 5 min, grounded and separated a few times to get unrefined glucomannan. Hot air holding back sulfur dioxide was utilized during drying to forestall the darkening of the konjac cuts. Both techniques were effective in detaching and cleaning glucomannan. Researchers [13] used two strategies to clean konjac glucomannan. Strategy 1 involved mixing and centrifuging konjac flour in ethanol numerous times at room temperature, with the accelerated being stirred after each centrifugation in new half ethanol. The resulting acceleration was then blended in deionized water for 2 h before being centrifuged twice to collect the supernatant, which was then dried, sifted, and freeze-dried before being ground and sieved to extract PKF1. Strategy 2 konjac flour was combined with ethanol and centrifuged. After centrifugation, the supernatant was transferred to deionized water and mixed for 3 h. The mixture was then centrifuged again to remove any remaining insoluble materials. The supernatant was then diluted with distilled water and centrifuged again, followed by turning disappearing, liquor precipitation, centrifugation, lack of hydration, filtration, and freeze-drying procedures to obtain PKF2. Glucomannan with a substance of 91.4 ± 1.3 % was at long last created with a subatomic load of 9.1 ± 0.6 × 105 g/mol-1for PKF1and 9.5 ± 0.6 × 105 g/mol−1 for PKF2.
2.4. Microwave-assisted acid method
Under acidic circumstances, plant cells swell and burst their cell walls, bringing about the arrival of plant polysaccharides. The microwave-assisted acid method is a promising strategy for planning glucomannan and its oligosaccharides from konjac flour, with the upsides of fast response and low requirement for a corrosive impetus. Researchers [20] hydrolyzed konjac glucomannan from konjac flour utilizing hydrochloric corrosive in a microwave ablator. The ideal circumstances for the examination were the greatest force of 100 W, a most extreme tension of 200 psi,10 increase season of 15 min, microwave time, and a cooling time of 20 min. The concentrate explicitly showed that the hydrolysis conditions utilizing 2 MHCI at 110 °C for 15 min had the option to specifically and productively hydrolyze konjac flour to glucomannan oligosaccharides. Microwave warming has strong entering power and uniform warming attributes, which can quickly build the intracellular temperature and lead to cell wall cracks, consequently delivering polysaccharides. Besides, the warming pace is quick, typically without the requirement for many solvents, which essentially decreases energy utilization and natural contamination. Likewise, microwave-assisted acid extraction enjoys clear benefits for more steady or solvent polysaccharides under acidic circumstances. Nonetheless, its program is somewhat complicated and the hardware expense is high. Albeit the microwave warming time is generally short, extreme temperature and acidic circumstances might harm the spatial construction of polysaccharides, which thusly influences their natural movement. Meanwile, extraordinary consideration should be paid to the dangers of well-being while managing microwave radiation and acidic substances.
2.5. Purification
Proteins are important debasements in polysaccharide separations, influencing the representation of polysaccharide structure and the precise guarantee of natural activity [21]. In this regard, the report ionization phase in the polysaccharide filtering process is very important. Deproteinization systems include explicit corruption, precipitation, and adsorption. By supplying natural solvents and salt particles, the bilayer design of proteins can be disrupted and accelerated while maintaining dissolvability harmony and solidity in fluid solution [22]. Protein removal can be accomplished using the sevage approach, trichloroacetic acid (TAC), NaCl, CaCl2 technology, and so on [23]. The sevage technique uses chloroform and n-butanol to remove proteins from polysaccharide solutions [24]. Dialysis and liquor precipitation are both available, with liquor precipitation being the more appealing and widely used method [25]. Liquor precipitation exploits the distinction in polysaccharide extremity with ethanol to work with the progressive precipitation of the polysaccharide, while the expansion of ethanol brings down the dielectric consistency of the solution. The dialysis strategy utilizes dialysis sacks with fitting pore sizes and dialysis layers in light of the sub-atomic load of the polysaccharides to eliminate little particle contaminations like inorganic salts, monosaccharides, and oligosaccharides from the polysaccharide arrangement, while enormous atoms, like polysaccharides, are held inside the bags. Anion trade segments separate acidic and nonpartisan polysaccharides in light of polysaccharide extremity differences. An emphatically charged particle exchanger is immobilized in the anion segment. As the sample solution flows through it, the anionic compounds undergo particle exchange, and separation is achieved based on the difference in adsorption strength. Liquor precipitation uses the difference in polysaccharide extremity with ethanol to operate with the progressive precipitation of the polysaccharide, whereas the expansion of ethanol reduces the dielectric consistency of the solution [26]. The dialysis strategy employs dialysis sacks with appropriate pore sizes and dialysis layers based on the sub-atomic load of the polysaccharides to remove small particle contaminants such as inorganic salts, monosaccharides, and oligosaccharides from the polysaccharide arrangement, while large atoms, such as polysaccharides, are held inside the bags [27]. Anion trade segments distinguish acidic and nonpartisan polysaccharides based on polysaccharide extremity differences [28]. The anion section contains an immobilized particle exchanger that is strongly charged. The anionic chemicals undergo particle exchange when the sample solution runs past it, resulting in separation based on the difference. Gel filtration chromatography, on the other hand, isolates particles based on their subatomic weight [29], where atoms of various sizes cross the gel with different levels of the block, resulting in a partition impact that is especially common in the division of large particles such as proteins, nucleic acids, and other substances.
3. Derivatisation
Regular plant polysaccharides contain a variety of natural functions, including moderating, hypoglycemia, cancer prevention, and immunomodulatory properties. Nonetheless, most plant polysaccharides have limited aptitude and poor function. Compound modification can improve the bioactivity of plant polysaccharides, and a few polysaccharides can be modified to provide novel bioactivities and increase bioavailability. Polysaccharide derivatization procedures include sulfation, acetylation, phosphorylation, carboxymethylation, amination, benzoylation, C-glycosylation, hydroxypropylation, and selenylation [30]. A variety of factors influence the natural features of polysaccharide subordinates, including atomic weight, type of modification, unique polysaccharide species, adjustment circumstances, solvency, and space conformation [31]. Table 3 provides a summary of various derivatized konjac glucomannans.
Table 3.
Summary of different derivatized konjac glucomannans.
| Modification type |
Derivatization method | Reagent dosage | Substitution degree | Advantage | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carboxymethylated | Monochloroacetic acid method | 4.17 g NaOH + 80 % ethanol and 3.34 g chloroacetic acid | 0.59 | Antioxidant activity, scavenging free radicals | [32] |
| 70 % ethanol and 0.6 g chloroacetic acid | 0.4 | Combined with functional carbon nanotubes antibacterial films were prepared | [33] | ||
| Phosphorylated | Phosphate method | The molar ratio of NaH2PO4⋅2H2O and Na2HPO4⋅12H2O is 2:1 | 0.046、 0.131、 0.199 |
The solubility in water is increased, and the stability and fluidity in solution are enhanced | [34] |
| Sulfation | The chlorosulfonic corrosive pyridine strategy and the sulfur trioxide-pyridine method | Chlorosulfonic acid − pyridine technique and sulfur trioxide − pyridine technique | 1.3–1.4 | High enemy of HIV and low to direct blood anticoagulant movement | [35] |
| Acetylation | The TFAA and acetic acid method | 20 mL TFAA and 20 mL acetic acid | 3.0 | The AceKGM fiber membrane can regulate macrophage activity and accelerate wound healing | [36] |
3.1. Carboxymethylation
Carboxymethylation is an important ether derivatization cycle of polysaccharides that can change their design, physical-synthetic properties, and natural mobility by introducing new groups into the polysaccharide chain [37]. Polysaccharides exhibit dynamic features after carboxymethylation, such as significantly increased antiviral and anticancer activity [38]. Carboxymet-related polysaccharides exhibit a variety of organic activities, including cancer prevention agents and monochloroacetic corrosive (immunomodulatory, anti-growth, and relaxing workouts). Furthermore, some carboxymethylated polysaccharides are extremely biocompatible and degradable, resulting in their widespread application in the food industry [39]. Carboxymethylation assays are a simple and cost-effective alternative to polysaccharide derivatization. Researchers [38] dispersed 5.0 g of konjac glucomannan in ethanol, added 3.34 g of chloroacetic corrosive, and mixed at 20 °C for 2 h. Ethanol and sodium hydroxide were added to the solution, which was thoroughly agitated at 55 °C for three hours. Finally, the carboxymethylated konjac glucomannan (CMKGM) powder was washed with ethanol, separated, and dried. Potentiometric titration yields a not-set-in-stone level of 0.59. The rummage abilities of carboxymethylated konjac glucomannan against DPPH and ABTS extremists were 85.75 % and 90.93 %, respectively, and its cell support reasonability was comparable to those of L-ascorbic corrosive. The somewhat serious level of CMKGM replacement illustrates the trial strategy's strong competence and potential. Scientists [33] added 1.0 g of deionized water and stirred it at 350 cycles per minute for two hours. The sodium acetic acid derivative subordinate was then mixed with 70 % ethanol and scattered/disintegrated inside a polysaccharide framework. In this method, 0.6 g of monochloroacetic corrosive were mixed with 25 ml of 70 % ethanol and introduced to the polysaccharide arrangement. Then, liquor precipitation with 80 % ethanol, filtration, and drying produced CMKGM with a 70 % yield and a replacement level of around 0.4. Most of the polysaccharide particles in this study were efficiently carboxymethylated, with an average of 0.4 hydroxyl bunches replacing each polysaccharide atom with carboxymethyl groups. Furthermore, the incorporation of carboxymethyl bunches into konjac glucomannan reduced the polysaccharide's hydrophilicity, making the CMKGM negatively charged and allowing it to bind to strongly charged biomolecules via electrostatic interactions, forming a structure suitable for drug transport. Electrostatic communication between two oppositely charged macromolecules can build a complex, which can be used to create a colon-specific drug delivery system [40]. Researcher [41] has bridged the gap between LYZ in antimicrobial coatings by combining it with CMKGM. The complexed enzyme acts as an antibacterial agent by halting logarithmic growth and affecting the integrity of cell walls and membranes. Researchers [42] created a cross-linked hydrogel with dual properties by combining carboxymethylated konjac glucomannan (KGM) and polyvinyl alcohol. This hydrogel's mechanical characteristics have been greatly improved, and it is capable of sensing human activities and the accompanying fluctuations in ambient temperature, allowing for the development of multifunctional hydrogel sensors. The component of polysaccharide carboxymethylation is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.
Chart of the instrument of polysaccharide carboxymethylation.
3.2. Phosphorylation
Phosphorylated polysaccharides are combined by introducing a phosphorylating group into the polysaccharide chain, which is another receptive gathering in the polysaccharide structure [43]. Phosphoric anhydride, phosphorus trichloride, phosphate, and phosphorus pentoxide are often used reagents for polysaccharide phosphorylation [44]. Konjac glucomannan phosphate (KGMP) alleviates KGM's low water dissolvability, poor arrangement soundness, and poor stream capacity, while also increasing its flexibility and wide materialness in a few fields [11]. Researchers [34] mixed NaH2PO4·2H2O and Na2HPO4·12H2O (molar proportion 2:1) in purified water and blended at 100 r/min. The arrangement's pH was adjusted to 5.0. The arrangement was then gently poured into the konjac glucomannan while being mixed. The subsequent blend was exposed to vacuum treatment followed by microwave response at 100 °C and 300 W for 7 min. The mixture was then washed with different ethanol slopes before being dried and sieved to obtain KGMP with three distinct replacement values: 0.046, 0.131, and 0.199. The trial was conducted by progressively pouring the phosphorylation reagent into konjac glucomannan while mixing, ensuring that the reagent was in full contact with the polysaccharides and responded consistently. Fig. 3 shows the component of polysaccharide phosphorylation.
Fig. 3.
Mechanism of polysaccharide phosphorylation.
3.3. Sulphation
Regular sulfated polysaccharides exhibit a wide variety of antiviral activity, possibly by hindering key stages in the viral life cycle and enhancing the host's antiviral safe response [45]. Normal and adjusted sulfated polysaccharides exhibit immunomodulatory and flagging characteristics. Their resistive activity is regulated not only by their source but also by characteristics such as subatomic weight and sulfation level (DS) [46]. Researchers [35] hydrolyzed konjac glucomannan to produce low-atomic weight konjac glucomannan. The researchers used two ways to prepare sulfated glucomannans.At 85 °C, konjac glucomannan was distributed in anhydrous dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) before being treated with 1.0 g of piperidine-N-sulfonic corrosive. It was blended at 85 °C for two hours. Following that, it was killed with sodium hydroxide, dialyzed, and freeze-dried to produce sulfated konjac glucomannan.At 60 °C, konjac glucomannan was combined with 25 ml of anhydrous DMSO. A sulfur trioxide-pyridine combination was then added and blended for 45 min. It was then killed with an immersed sodium bicarbonate solution, dialyzed, and freeze-dried to extract sulfated glucomannan. Sulfation was achieved using either piperidine-N-sulfonic corrosive or sulfur trioxide-pyridine complex, resulting in sulfated konjac glucomannan with a sub-atomic burden of 1.0 × 104 and a level of sulfation (DS) ranging from 1.3 to 1.4. KGMs have limited applicability due to their high subatomic weight and thickness. Hydrolysis can be used to reduce the atomic burden of an arrangement, hence reducing its consistency. This method can be applied to things with low thickness or explicit smoothness. Derivatization reactions can be used to improve physicochemical qualities, increase organic movement, and address concerns with explicit fields and objects. Because of its excellent anti-HIV activity and low direct anticoagulant activity, konjac glucomannan sulfate is a highly sought-after newcomer in the field of antiviral polysaccharides. Nonetheless, the sulfation of KGM has rarely been accounted for, and this gap could be gradually closed from here on out, creating a promising and expansive sector for future specialists to examine. Fig. 4 shows the component of polysaccharide sulfation.
Fig. 4.
Mechanism of polysaccharide sulphation.
3.4. Selenisation
With the dual activity of selenium and polysaccharides, seleniumo polysaccharide is a unique selenium compound that is generally more organically dynamic than selenium and polysaccharides. It is also better for the ingestion and use of the organic entity, has negligible side effects, and is safer to use [47]. Cold acidic corrosive-selenite (GA-SS), nitric corrosive-selenite (NA-SS), nitric corrosive-selenic corrosive (NA-SA), frosty acidic corrosive-selenic corrosive (GA-SA), and selenium chloride oxychloride methods [48] are typical selection tactics. Konjac glucomannan oligosaccharide selenium has recently been studied. Researchers [49] successfully established a progression of DP2-9 by using PpGluA, a sophisticated and incredibly dynamic substrate-explicit glucomannan hydrolase. Through a series of substance responses and precipitation medications, the sodium selenite-nitric corrosive technique was used to change the selenium content of the konjac glucomannan oligosaccharide (KGOS). The result was a 0.4 g powder of selenium-adjusted KGOS. According to an ICP-MS analysis, the pre-arranged Se-KGOS's selenium concentration was 5.9 mg/g. Although KGM is still a great examination prospect, there is currently no report on its determination. We hope that more experts will focus on it going forward. Fig. 5 shows the polysaccharide selection component.
Fig. 5.
Mechanism of solemnization of polysaccharides.
3.5. Acetylation
The researchers [36] added 0.5 g of KGM to a premixed solution of 20 ml of trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFAA) and 20 ml of acetic acid, then stirred it continuously under a nitrogen environment at 50 °C for 1 h. Subsequently, the researchers subjected the solution to alcohol precipitation and washed it with ethanol. Immediately afterwards, they performed an extraction using chloroform. Following that, they repeated the alcohol precipitation process and accompanied it with multiple washing steps, ultimately obtaining AceKGM with a degree of substitution of 3.0. Furthermore, AceKGM samples with DS 1.0 and 1.7 were created by partially deacetylating AceKGM-3.0. The AceKGM fiber membrane created by researchers utilizing electrospinning technology boosts macrophage activity and speeds up wound healing. Furthermore, the degree of substitution of AceKGM influences the membrane's biological activity. The discovery showed that AceKGM's fibrous membrane had a high potential for wound healing.
4. Structure characteristics
Polysaccharides, as biomolecules, typically have enormous atomic loads and complex underlying frameworks, which cover their primary highlights from the fundamental construction to more significant levels, including monosaccharide synthesis, sub-atomic weight size, glycosidic holding classes and associations, and higher underlying forms [50]. At the fundamental design level, the primary focus is on the example of linkages between glycan rings, the request for monosaccharide buildups inside the polysaccharide, the configuration of the hydrocarbons, the presence or absence of branches in the glycan chain, and the length of the branches [40].Polysaccharide construction has been investigated using a variety of strategies, including synthetic techniques such as methylation examination, Smith's corruption, Congo red, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS), destructive hydrolysis, periodate oxidation, superior execution fluid chromatography (HPLC), and gas chromatography (GC) [51], as well as actual techniques such as gel chromatography, atomic attractive reverberation (NMR), and FT-IR spectroscopy [52]. Understanding the development of KGMs is especially important given the growing interest in their numerous applications.
4.1. Types and places of glycosidic bonds
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) can be used to study and identify chemicals formed by the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds, allowing researchers to determine the existence and type of glycosidic bonds in the original sample. NMR spectroscopy is useful for determining the type and area of glycosidic linkages. GC–MS, in conjunction with periodate oxidation, Smith corruption, fractional corrosive hydrolysis, and enzymatic absorption may identify the kind and position of glycosidic linkages. The KGM basic chain contains some β-1,3-glycosidic securities and several β-1,4-glycosidic securities coupled in a proportion of 1:1.6–1:1.4. This distinction in proportions is largely caused by the different types of konjac, depending on the genotype [53]. The β-1,3-glycosidic bond connects the D-mannose and D-glucose buildups of the primary chain at the C-3 site. Short side chains on mannose contain several glucose and mannose deposits and are typically three to four sugar buildups long, with three side chains for every 32 fundamental chain sugar deposits. One acetyl bunch in each of 19 major chain sugar buildups is covalently connected to the C-6 position of the side chain via an ester bond, which significantly improves KGM's water dissolvability [54]. In expansion, the acetyl bunches were haphazardly disseminated at the C-6 site of the sugar deposits with a recurrence of roughly one acetyl bunch for every 19 sugar residues [55].
4.2. Chemical structure
The sub-atomic structure of KGM is rich in hydroxyl and carbonyl functional groups, which will generally consolidate with one another to form chain-like, ring-shaped, layered, or three-dimensional hydrogen-holding network systems, preparing KGM to form strong hydrogen-holding associations with other macromolecules. The water solvency of KGM is proportional to the number of hydrogen bonds in its internal structure, and an increase in the thickness of the hydrogen bonds results in a comparable decrease in KGM's dissolvability in water [56]. In addition to the numerous hydroxyl and carbonyl functional groups found throughout the subatomic chain, KGM is known to interact with water particles in a fluid arrangement via hydrogen holding or van der Waals forces. Because of the small number of acetyl groups, KGM has a chain structure that is randomly wound [57], but the acetyl groups maintain their primary stability [58]. The Imprint Houwink condition reveals that KGM exists as direct arbitrary curls with clear intermolecular affiliations of “super-entanglement”, “super-entrapment”, “Super-snare”, and “Super-entrapment” phenomenon [59]. The acetyl bunch concentration in KGM ranges between 5–10 % [3], with approximately one acetyl bunch for every 17 buildups at the C-6 position [4] and one acetyl bunch for every 19 units [60], an element that promotes gel production and is associated with gelling action. Fig. 6 depicts the synthetic designs for various KGMs.
Fig. 6.
Chemical structures of KGM1 [60], KGM2 [3], KGM3 [2], KGM4 [11] and KGM5 [61].
4.3. Monosaccharide composition
The most important aspect of studying polysaccharide structure is the arrangement of monosaccharides. Konjac glucomannan, with the sub-atomic equation （C6H10O5)n, is a straight, unpredictable copolymer with an irregular plan of (1–4)-connected β-D-mannans and β-D-glucans at a molar ratio of 1:1.5 or 1:1.6 [62]. Researchers [63] used ultrasonic and corrosive hydrolysis to treat konjac glucomannan. It was examined utilizing HPLC and discovered that KGM is mostly made up of mannose and glucose, with a molar ratio of about 1.93: 1. Gel penetration chromatography (GPC) measurements revealed that all regular and corrupted KGM tests contained between 65 % and 70 % carbohydrates and 2.5 % protein. The scientists [64] further explored three KGM tests: business konjac glucomannan (CKG) and KGMs dried at 55℃ and 75℃ (KF55 and KF75, separately). The 13C SP/MAS NMR spectroscopy procedure was used to extensively distinguish the compound climate of all carbon iotas in the examples. The outcomes showed that the proportion of D-mannose to D-glucose (Man: Glc) was 1.6:1 in KF75, 1.4:1 in KF55, and even lower in CKG, at 1.2:1.These contrasts recommend that the monomeric arrangement of glucomannan changes fundamentally from one example to another.
4.4. Molecular weight
The primary strategies for sub-atomic weight assurance incorporate osmolarity, thickness, mass spectrometry, end bunch analysis [65], sedimentation, and HPLC, among which High-Performance Gel Permeation Chromatography (HPGPC) is a generally involved technique for atomic weight determination [66]. Research has indicated that konjac glucomannan's sub-atomic charge or mass ranges between 500 k and 2000 k [67]. Be that as it may, this atomic weight territory changes and reaches out from 200 kDa to 2000 kDa [9] because of contrasts in konjac assortments, natural substance sources, handling procedures, stockpiling conditions, and extraction techniques embraced. Specifically, the extraction technique has a more noteworthy effect, as delayed ultrasonic therapy or microwave radiation might prompt breakage of the polysaccharide sub-atomic chain, which thusly sets off the debasement of the fundamental chain and eventually prompts a diminishing in the sub-atomic load of the polysaccharides [68].
4.5. Conformational features
As of now, the high-level primary portrayal of polysaccharides incorporates techniques like X-ray crystallographic analysis (XRD), scanning electron imaging (SEM), nuclear power microscopy (AFM), and Congo red analyses.
Fig. 7 shows the SEM pictures of konjac polysaccharides and konjac oligosaccharides. The particles have a circular design with a lopsided surface appearance. KGM is joined by a circular design and a conservative and hard surface, as expected [69]. Konjac polysaccharides and konjac oligosaccharides were compared after enzymatic hydrolysis, yet the distance across was essentially diminished. This change might cause changes in the physicochemical properties and physiological elements of konjac oligosaccharides, so the researchers [70] did ultrasonic corruption treatment of konjac glucomannan and noticed it with Fourier change infrared spectroscopy by examining electron microscopy. The outcomes showed that when the debasement treatment, the practical gathering types didn't show huge contrasts. Be that as it may, the underlying morphology was changed. Before debasement, glucomannan showed an arranged and thick direct design, and after corruption, it was changed into granular and nebulous particles. Furthermore, the ultrasonic treatment set off a decline in sub-atomic weight, joined by a critical expansion in cell reinforcement movement.
Fig. 7.
Scanning electron micrographs of konjac polysaccharides (a) and konjac oligosaccharides (b).
KGM showed different molecule sizes and shapes. Researchers [60] portrayed two hydrolyzed KGM parts with various sub-atomic loads (KGM-M-1: 147.2 kDa, KGM-M-2: 21.5 kDa) utilizing Fourier Change Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy with Filtering Electron Microscopy (SEM). The SEM pictures showed that the first KGM introduced a straw-pack-like morphology, with consistently situated stems and fanning haphazardly cross-connected, while the enzymatic debasement items, KGM-M-1 and KGM-M-2, gave unpredictable and nebulous pieces of various shapes, covering blocky, stringy, and granular structures. These morphological changes were like the progressions in KGM after debasement by power ultrasound in past examinations. The helical construction is fundamental to polysaccharides' properties and organic exercises and frequently fills in as a productive transporter for utilitarian polynucleotides [71]. KGs show an ordinary α-helical compliance. The dextran macromolecular chain comprises steady, exchanging left- and right-gave helical units [68]. Topologically, the linkage design of the KGM particle depends on an organization of intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds, which add to the principal chain's round geography and upgrade the construction's security through the interconnection of Gracious gatherings in the side chains [72].
5. Activity
The construction of polysaccharides is complicated and shifted, and polysaccharides with various designs show different natural exercises inside and outside the life form, for example, bacteriostatic activity [73], antiviral activity [74], immunomodulatory activity [75], anticancer activity [76], etc. Thus, polysaccharides can be applied in drugs, nutraceuticals, food, etc. With the top-to-bottom investigation of konjac glucomannan, it was found to have great bioactivities and medical advantages like antidiabetic against corpulence, anticholesterol, diuretic impact, prebiotic, calming, hostile to cancer, wound healing [77] etc. The exercises and medical benefits of KGMs are displayed in Table 4. Fig. 8 depicts some of KGM's activities and the means via which it achieves its objectives.
Table 4.
The physiological effects and wellness advantages of KGM.
| Biological activity |
Study design | KGM dosage and dosage form |
Results | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antidiabetic | A diabetes model was established, and all rats were divided into a normal control, a polysaccharide control, and a diabetes group. The diabetes group was randomly divided into five groups: untreated diabetes, metformin treatment, and three groups with different doses of SKGM. OGTT: 4 weeks on SKGM or MetThe rats were fed normally and the other group was fed HFD. The diabetic rats were divided into the untreated, metformin-treated (70 mg/kg), 160 mg/kg DOP, KGM group, and 160 mg/kg GP Fresh feces were taken from mice fed a high-fat diet one week after receiving various forms of KGM, and blood samples were collected and dissected twelve weeks later for liver and adipose tissue investigation |
The polysaccharide control group: 80 mg/k SKGM and PC. Diabetes group: 40, 80, and 160 mg/kg SKGM treatment group 160 mg/kg KGM 400 mg per kg body weight |
The administration of SKGM significantly reduced the levels of fasting blood glucose, glucagon-like peptide-1, serum insulin, glycosylated serum protein, and lipid concentrations Upregulated BCAA metabolism in type 2 diabetic rats. KGM treatment reduced the abundance of genes associated with microbial BCAA biosynthesis and improved host BCAA metabolism KGM sol is the most effective kind for controlling glycolipid digestion and expanding α-vegetation in high-fat mice |
[78], [79], [80] |
| Prebiotic activity | Inoculated 10 ml of 10 % (w/v) fecal serous fluid in a basic medium. The substrate was added and dissolved in a base medium (90 ml). Samples were taken at 0, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h and stored at − 20 °C In vitro experiments: feces from healthy people and lactose-intolerant patients were collected to simulate colonic fermentation; mouse experiments: serum was removed from lactose-intolerant mice after four weeks of dosing, and the spleen and thymus were collected for analysis |
1 %(w/v) LKOG、HKOG、KGM、 PGM and inulin (positive control) In vitro: 20 g KGM with 34 mL of citric acid sodium citrate buffer (pH = 6.0); mouse experiments:KGM group 195 mg/kg, KOGM group 195 mg/kg |
PGM can promote the growth of bifidobacterium and significantly reduce the number of clostridium KGM and KOGM can be utilized as prebiotics to lighten the side effects of lactose prejudice |
[81], [82] |
| ACE inhibitory activity | The P3 solution was mixed with the ACE solution and incubated at 37 °C for 10 min | Increase from 0.2 mg/mL to 1 mg/mL | The ACE inhibitory activity of P3 increases with increasing concentration, with an IC50 value of 0.791 M. P3 has a specific inhibitory effect on ACE | [83] |
| Antioxidant activity | Using the DPPH method and FRAP assay: the DPPH radical scavenging capacity of KGMHs with varying molecular weights was assessed by incubating the samples in the dark at room temperature for 30 min, across a pH range of 2.0 to 8.0. Then they were mixed with DPPH solution | The KGM powder was mixed into the mannanase solution at a KGM concentration of 10 % (w/w), and enzymatic reactions were allowed to proceed for different durations to obtain KGMHs | KGMHs with the smallest molecular weight (Mw = 419) exhibited the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity | [84] |
| Immunomodulatory activity | Injecting cyclophosphamide into mice resulted in an immunosuppressive condition. Immune indices were detected: the immune-enhancing effect of KGM was evaluated by measuring immune-related indicators such as the number of immune cells, immune cell activity, and cytokine levels in the mice Mouse macrophages were grown in medium and examined after being treated with KGM |
From day 4 to day 20, the mice were orally administered KGM at dosages of 200 mg/kg/d, 300 mg/kg/d, and 400 mg/kg/d respectively 20、40、80、160 and 320 μg/mL KGM |
KGM treatment significantly increased the number of immune cells, such as lymphocytes and macrophages, in immunosuppressed mice; KGM also enhanced the activity of immune cells and improved their responsiveness to antigens KGM caused mild immunological activation on macrophages |
[85], [86] |
| Anti-cancer activity | HepG2/5-FU cells were injected into thymus-free male BALB/c mice, and tumor weights were determined after four weeks of treatment HepG2 and HepG2/5-FU cells were cultivated in the medium, and the possibility of reversing multidrug resistance was investigated after 24 h of KGM therapy Tumor progenitors are induced in Balb/C mice, and tumors are transplanted and then vaccinated to detect changes in tumor volume |
20 mg/kg KGM per two days 2、6 μg/ml KGM 2、4 and 100 mg KGM for vaccine preparation |
KGM makes 5-FU-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells less resistant to 5-FU KGM inhibited the growth of HepG2/5-FU in mice KGM can be used as a dietary supplement or adjuvant for the treatment of breast cancer in mice |
[87], [88], [89] |
| Weight loss activity | High-fat mice fed KGM were cultured for ten weeks, and interscapular brown and white adipose tissue were removed and quantified | 8 % （w/w） KGM | KGM activates the ADR3β receptor, which promotes iWAT thermogenesis and helps reduce obesity caused by a high-fat diet | [90] |
| Anti-microbial activity | Mice induced with periodontitis were treated with KGM suspension for two weeks | 80 mg/kg KGM and 0.5 % CMC for suspension | In vitro KGM has 15–23 % bacteriostatic capacity | [91] |
| Anti-atherosclerotic activity | Rabbits were given a high-fat diet and blood and specimens were collected after 12 weeks of KGM feeding | 300 mg/kg/d KGM | KGM safeguards against high-fat eating regimens prompted AS in hares by advancing the PI3K/Akt pathway | [92] |
Fig. 8.
Different biological activities of KGM.
5.1. Anti-diabetic
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder caused by insufficient insulin secretion or insulin resistance. The disease is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia, which leads to disorders of glucose and lipid metabolism and their associated complications [93]. There are three types of diabetes, specifically gestational diabetes mellitus, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and type 1 diabetes. The most common is T2DM, which accounts for 90 % of all diabetic patients.There are three kinds of diabetes mellitus, to be specific, sort 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and gestational diabetes mellitus, the most predominant being T2DM, which represents 90 % of all diabetic patients [94]. Konjac has demonstrated significant blood glucose-lowering activity in laboratory settings and living organisms [95]. In vivo tests showed that blood glucose levels were considerably lower in the konjac-treated group. In vitro experiments showed reduced glucose diffusion and better inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities to varying degrees.
Researchers [96] have utilized suitable creature models of T2DM to assess and guide human pathogenesis, a considerable lot of which show comparable pathology to people and are hereditarily simple to control, have more limited conceptive cycles, and are manageable to physiological tests and intrusive investigations. Researchers [78] using KGM to treat diabetic rats found that KGM organization altogether decreased fasting glucose, blood insulin levels, a glucagon-mimetic peptide (GLP-1), and levels of glycoproteins in the serum. What's more, SKGM treatment altogether decreased lipid markers, including groupings of absolute cholesterol, fatty oils, low-thickness lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and non-esterified unsaturated fats (NEFA). It is worth focusing on that SKGM likewise assisted with further developing the cell reinforcement safeguard limit of type 2 diabetic rodents, weakened pancreatic harm, and eased adipocyte hypertrophy. The helpful impacts are displayed in Fig. 9.KGM resulted in improved metabolic disorders in type 2 diabetic rats [79]. Glucomannan mediation diminished stomach microbial BCAA biosynthesis quality overflow and advanced the rebuilding of host BCAA digestion. Gucomannan with a high subatomic weight and low mannose/glucose proportion had a superior antidiabetic impact. What’s more, consuming several forms of KGM in high-fat mice improved glycolipid metabolism and increased the diversity of intestinal flora [80]. The most effective KGM compared to deacetylated KGM, KGM gel, and frozen KGM gel was KGM sol, which may regulate glucolipid metabolism by increasing the levels of fasting appetite hormones GLP-1 and PYY, up-regulating the expression of LDLR, GCK, and G-6-pase mRNA, and increasing the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in mouse intestinal flora.
Fig. 9.
Therapeutic effect of KGM on type 2 diabetic mice.
5.2. Prebiotic activity
Probiotic movement alludes to the capacity of probiotics to stay alive and carry out natural roles in the body. Konjac glucomannan displays different bioactive capabilities, for example, being a diuretic, a prebiotic to advance digestive wellbeing, and a mitigating specialist, carrying many advantages to human health [97]. The countercorruption property of konjac glucomannan further approves its plausibility as a prebiotic [98]. Konjac glucomannan oligosaccharide (KMOS) is a prebiotic that can indirectly prevent gastrointestinal irritation via the SIGNR1-interceded flagging pathway, in which KMOS regulates macrophage capability to improve digestive resistance [99]. Researchers [81] debased konjac glucomannan to konjac oligosaccharides (LKOG) utilizing β-mannanase. Bacterial populaces, including Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Bacteroidetes, Clostridium, and organisms, were then counted in waste bunch societies, with Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus being the useful microbes and Clostridium and Bacteroidetes spp. as the pathogenic microorganisms. Different substrates, like LKOG, were tried to evaluate the prebiotic properties by checking the development of gainful microbes and the convergence of short-chain unsaturated fats during the aging system. LKOG had the most noteworthy complete bacterial counts during the maturation cycle and was viable in supporting the development of digestive microorganisms and diminishing the number of microbes, with a prebiotic record of 0.76. The huge qualities of this study are the straightforwardness of the in vitro measure strategy, more limited, tedious, financially savvy, versatile, great, and simple to screen for an enormous scope, great adaptability, and simplicity of huge scope screening. After the corruption of KGM into LKOG, its atomic construction is somewhat basic, which is more helpful for the investigation of prebiotic movement and capability. Furthermore, the atomic design of LKOG is more appropriate for the usage of gastrointestinal probiotics. Depolyized KGM (DKGM), a degradation product of KGM, has been shown to improve the intestinal environment in numerous in vivo experiments. In in vitro tests, DKGM has shown a prebiotic effect that promotes the proliferation of beneficial lactic acid bacteria and intestinal microbiota [100]. Likewise, DKGM has antioxidant and immunological activities. KGM and konjac oligogalactomannan (KOGM) prebiotics have been found to improve lactose intolerance by altering intestinal structure, increasing the quantity of beneficial flora, and modifying biochemical markers [82]. In the in vivo investigation, the scientists discovered that patients who ingested konjac glucomannan (KGM) and konjac oligo-galactomannan (KOGM) had lower levels of total cholesterol (T-CHO) and fatty oil (TG), as well as higher levels of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA. KGM and KOGM ingestion increased ileal villus level and digestive wall thickness (p < 0.05), while decreasing grave profundity (p < 0.05). In addition, the ratio of intestinal flora was optimized by the introduction of KGM with KOGM. KGM and KOGM provide a novel treatment option for lactose intolerant people.
Also, the extraction strategies meaningfully affected the prebiotic action of the polysaccharides. Researchers [101] extricated jujube polysaccharides utilizing boiling water extraction (JP-H), UHP-helped profound eutectic dissolvable extraction (JP-UD), super high tension extraction (JP-U), and DES extraction (JP-D). The four polysaccharides showed differential impacts on the expansion of probiotics, with the JP-UD-separated jujube polysaccharide displaying a huge prebiotic action. This could be attributed to JP-UD's higher sugar content and solubility, lower apparent viscosity, and molecular weight, and specific glycosidic bonds.
5.3. Antioxidant activity
Under physiological circumstances, a unique equilibrium exists between developing receptive oxygen species (ROS) and their end by free extremist rummaging frameworks. At the point when ROS are in overabundance, the redox balance is disturbed, which thusly sets off tissue oxidative harm and oxidative pressure-prompted harm to DNA, proteins, fatty substances, and the subsequent increase in the level of ROS is one of the vital contributing variables to the movement of the disease [102]. Designs, for example, chitosan, pectic polysaccharides, dextran, mannoprotein, alginate, and fucoidan have cancer prevention agent impacts. The cell reinforcement intensity of polysaccharides is exceptionally subject to their dissolvability, glycan ring adaptation, atomic weight size, nature of the charge (presence of emphatically or adversely charged gatherings), protein portions, and the impact of covalently fortified phenolic compounds [103]. KGM has areas of strength for a limit, expanding its action with an expanding polysaccharide focus. Be that as it may, the cell reinforcement movement of polysaccharides might be impacted by their atomic design, level of polymerization, and monosaccharide arrangement. Ultrasound treatment advances the arrival of significant intracellular cell reinforcement parts in connection [104]. Corrupting oligosaccharides can enhance their sub-atomic design to develop cell reinforcement movement further. Scientists [84] evaluated the cell reinforcing properties of konjac glucomannan hydrolysates (KGMHs) with varying sub-atomic weights in the pH range of 2.0 to 8.0 by determining their searching activity against DPPH extremists using the DPPH technique. The outcomes showed that KGMHs with the littlest sub-atomic weight (Mw = 419) displayed the most noteworthy DPPH revolutionary searching action. This peculiarity might be ascribed to the limiting of polysaccharide particles or the amino gatherings they give to free revolutionaries to shape more steady mixtures, or the collaboration among polysaccharides and free extreme particles, which successfully hinders the chain response cycle of free revolutionaries. The researchers [105] discovered that the scavenging capabilities of konjac glucomannan (KOG) and vitamin C (Vc) on hydroxyl and DPPH radicals increased as the concentration increased. However, at low concentrations, vitamin C outperformed KOG in terms of scavenging. Despite its relatively low radical scavenging potential, KOG is recognized as an ideal raw material for the development of functional meals due to its strong safety profile as a naturally occurring plant polysaccharide. Researchers [106] investigated the effects of different doses of KGM on rats with type 2 diabetes induced by a high-fat diet. KGM reduced oxidative stress by modulating the Nrf2 pathway, providing relaxing effects, and modifying the NF-κB pathway. This component allowed KGM to significantly reduce blood glucose and insulin levels in animals with type 2 diabetes caused by a high-fat diet, as well as improve associated metabolic and cellular reinforcement markers. Moderate amounts of KGM were shown to have remarkable effects on maintaining the primary integrity of the kidneys and liver. These findings provided strong support for KGM as a potential conventional treatment for type 2 diabetes.
5.4. Immunomodulatory activity
Polysaccharides are powerful in improving human immunity [107] by enacting different safe pathways, including the guidelines for resistant organs, advancement of invulnerable cells, guidelines of cytokines, and tweaks of resistant reactions. The thymus and spleen assume a pivotal role in the resistant framework, and lymphocytes, as significant safe cells, have been seriously examined in a few mouse models [108].
Glucomannan promotes macrophage resistance by increasing the emission of insensitive effector atoms, improving phagocytosis and endocytosis, and inducing specific upregulation of the M1 aggregate. NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways support this cycle [86]. Acetyl groups may be the primary target of glucomannan in initiating safe initiation, and the atomic weight. KGM stimulates macrophage development into either the traditionally activated M1 or alternatively activated M2 type, enabling interconversion between the two phenotypes [109]. Polarization has a significant impact on macrophage immune defense, inflammatory response, tissue healing, and disease progression. Researchers [85] chose mice as experimental subjects, created an immunosuppression model by injecting cyclophosphamide, and given various doses of KGM to evaluate its effect on immune system function. Cyclophosphamide, a nitrogen mustard anticancer medication, is commonly used in clinical practice, however it can have harmful adverse effects on individuals, particularly the immune system [110]. The experimental results showed that KGM could effectively inhibit immune organ degradation, promote lymphocyte proliferation, increase serum hemolysin content, and increase phagocytic and NK cell activity, while also inducing the release of a variety of cytokines and restoring the immunosuppression caused by cyclophosphamide in mice. and restore immunological function to cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed animals. The resistant impact of KGM on mice is displayed in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10.
Immunological effects of KGM in mice.
5.5. Anti-cancer activity
In conventional Chinese medicine (TCM), konjac tuber is a spice with hostile growth properties, and its concentrates significantly affect gastric disease cells [111]. KGM has anti-tumor properties by modulating the external environment and the tumor immunological microenvironment [112]. It has direct and indirect effects on tumor cells, directly up-regulating pro-apoptotic proteins and down-regulating anti-apoptotic genes, blocking the cell cycle, promoting apoptosis and inhibiting proliferation, as well as decreasing metastasis-associated proteins, increasing E-calcineurin, stimulating autophagy to reduce ROS, preventing migration and alleviating DNA damage; indirectly, it reduces carcinogens by inducing probiotic colonization, increasing SCFA, and acting. The counter-malignant growth component portrayed above is displayed in Fig. 11. The researchers discovered that KGM might convert 5-FU-safe hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells to 5-FU [87]. KGM caused endoplasmic reticulum stress by suppressing TLR4 and activating the Advantage/ATF4/Slash flagging pathway, which increased the lethal effect of 5-FU on HCC cells, improved drug resistance, and limited cell proliferation, mobility, and trama center pressure. KGM can also be used to slow breast tumor growth. Researchers investigated the reversal impact of konjac glucomannan (KGM) on 5-FU multidrug resistance in HepG2/5-FU cells [88]. The findings revealed that KGM efficiently reduced the activity of HepG2/5-FU cells in the presence of 5-FU, while also decreasing the expression levels of the multidrug resistance gene (MDR) and P-glycoprotein (P-gp). Furthermore, KGM reduced the expression of cell cycle-related genes while increasing the expression of apoptosis-related genes, resulting in an increase in the apoptosis rate. Notably, KGM inhibited the phosphorylation of AKT and increased the expression of p53 protein. In animal studies, KGM dramatically reduced the growth of HepG2/5-FU tumors in nude mice. Thus, KGM is expected to be a novel medication that overcomes the resistance of HepG2/5-FU cells to 5-FU by blocking the AKT signaling pathway enhancing p53 expression. The researchers explored the efficacy of KGM as a dietary supplement and its combination with a tumor lysate vaccine as an immune adjuvant [89]. The researchers regularly monitored changes in tumor volume, as well as examined the levels of various cytokine releases and the activity status of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. In addition, the expression of TGF-β and Foxp3 genes was assessed by real-time PCR. The results of the study showed that KGM was able to effectively promote IFN-γ cytokine production and strengthen Th1-type immune responses, thereby inhibiting tumor growth, while enhanced IL-4 cytokine responses were observed. Notably, KGM also works by down-regulating regulatory T-cell responses. Whether as a dietary supplement or an immune adjuvant, KGM demonstrated the ability to enhance the body's immune response and attenuate the immunosuppressive phenomena in the tumor microenvironment, which bodes well for its prospects as a potentially efficient therapeutic tool for slowing the growth of breast tumors.
Fig. 11.
Effect of KGM on tumor cells.
5.6. Other activities
KGM has weight-loss activity. Different molecular weights of KGMs also had different weight reduction effects in mice fed a high-fat, high-fructose diet [113]. Dietary supplementation with 90 kDa was found to be more effective for weight loss. This could be because it not only modulates the intestinal microbiota but also lowers hepatic fat accumulation by inhibiting Pparg expression while increasing Hsl and Cpt-1 expression. Researcher [90] have discovered that giving KGM to obese mice can effectively reduce stoutness. The component is that KGM activates the uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) and the β3-adrenergic receptor (ADR3β), which alters the properties related to energy and fat digestion in iWAT and stimulates thermogenesis. KGM includes antimicrobially active flavonoids (3,5-diacetyltambulin) and triterpenoids (ambylon), hence the researchers evaluated its antibacterial activity in animal and in vitro periodontitis models. In vivo studies showed that KGM prevented the obliteration of alveolar bone in a mouse model of periodontitis. In vitro, KGM reduced the growth of Porphyromonas gingivalis and associated biofilm by 15–23 %. Therefore, KGM can be used as an antibacterial agent to combat periodontitis. KGM also inhibits periodontitis through antioxidant properties and by hindering osteoclastogenesis [91]. KGM also possesses anti-atherosclerotic (AS) movement. KGM induced PI3K and AKT phosphorylation, implying that KGM exerts its anti-AS effects via the PI3K/Akt flagging pathway [92]. Further analysis revealed that KGM had the ability to completely reduce the level of oxidative pressure, accelerate the incendiary reaction, and reduce endothelium damage via this pathway. In terms of lipid executives, KGM also demonstrated positive results, contributing to an improvement in the lipid profile. At the histologic level, KGM organization essentially reduced the quantity of plaques and froth cells in the aorta while decreasing the thickness of the intima media, the proportion of thickness between the intima media and the exterior layer, and genuinely expanding the aortic lumen. These progressions cooperated to diminish the seriousness of AS. This recommends a promising use of KGM in AS prescription. The degradation of konjac glucomannan into oligosaccharides can improve its bioactivity and use in living organic entities, allowing for more precise evaluation of its expert inhibitory movement and the development of important practical medications. Researchers [83] employed β-mannanase to breakdown the crude polysaccharide to obtain KPD, which was then acetylated by pyridine acetic anhydride technique and processed by silica gel column chromatography to obtain the final product AC-P3. P3′s inhibitory effect against ACE increased as the concentration was steadily increased from 0.2 mg/mL to 1 mg/mL. The specialists decided the half-greatest inhibitory fixation (IC50) worth of P3, and the outcome was 0.791 M. Therefore, P3 showed great inhibitory action on Expert, which recommends that it might have a pharmacological system for additional examination and demonstrates that P3 can be a clever antihypertensive food or medication up-and-comer.
6. Applications
6.1. Foodstuffs
KGM has been broadly utilized in food applications because of its superb innocuousness and biocompatibility. The physical and chemical characteristics of KGM are still up in the air by its level of fanning (DOB) and acetylation level (DA), which impact the healthful properties of KGM, for example, gelling conduct, thickening impact, and mass qualities, and assume an essential part in the proficient utilization of food and food-added substances. In a fluid arrangement, the hydroxyl and carbonyl useful gatherings of KGM can frame hydrogen bonds and have solid cooperations with different macromolecules, empowering KGM to retain and store water productively and keeping a wet climate for KGM gels [61]. Moreover, the hydroxyl bunches in KGM can diminish the development of disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions, which makes KGM successful in forestalling protein collection and denaturation and is in this manner considered a critical substance for safeguarding the honesty of protein parts in food [114]. The capacity of KGM to essentially further develop the water-holding limit of wheat gluten, to change the optional design of wheat gluten, and to upgrade the proportion of free sulfhydryl gatherings to disulfide bonds upgrades the usefulness and soundness of wheat gluten, as well as the capacity to work on the auxiliary construction and the proportion of free sulfhydryl gatherings to disulfide obligations of wheat gluten, dependability, usefulness, and water maintenance limit of wheat gluten [115]. Specialists [116] investigated the effect of KGM consistency on the composition of the fish surimi combination and noodles. The study found that as KGM thickness increased, free sulfhydryl (SH) content decreased by 0.84 μmol/g and free water proportion increased by 8.25 %. The noodles' hardness and extensibility were significantly improved, especially when the KGM expansion reached 3 %. KGM significantly improved the cooking performance and textural qualities of the noodles by strengthening the starch-gluten-fish surimi composite organization structure. Researchers used chitosan-coated konjac glucomannan to extend the shelf life of yellow alkaline noodles while also optimizing their physicochemical properties, which included increased tensile strength and resistant starch (RS) content [117]. In expansion, KGM applied to food preservation will form a film on the surface of the food, which can effectively extend the shelf life of the food. Films ready from konjac glucomannan doped with mulberry concentrate can be utilized to permit constant visual observation of fish freshness [118]. Researchers [119] discovered that KGM gel has numerous application possibilities in the field of aquatic food preservation. It is not only an effective thickening for improving food texture, but it also acts as an active packaging ingredient to improve preservation effects. Furthermore, KGM gel possesses the role of being a carrier material, capable of carrying bioactive components such as antioxidants, hence further enhancing the preservation process of aquatic foods.
KGM can be combined with other materials for application in the food industry. Compared to single polysaccharide systems, the KGM-based mixed polysaccharide system has superior viscoelasticity and stability [120]. Researchers [72] arranged a composite gel with KGM and gum Arabic (GA), with a mind-boggling system of hostile and synergistic communications among KGM and GA, which makes the gel hydrophobic. This composite gel can be straightforwardly devoured or utilized as a food-added substance, which gives a novel plan for the improvement of well-being gel food varieties. By consolidating various proportions of gelling specialists, KGM can be utilized to plan film materials with different capabilities and performance. The scientists blended thickener (XG) and konjac glucomannan (KGM) to set up a composite covering with helpful capacities, and afterward presented gallic corrosive (GA) into it, which can be utilized to save the newness of bananas and dial back their oxidative development for capacity [121]. KGM composites doped with root bark tannins from Sargassum have expanded cell reinforcement and antibacterial properties [122]. Scientists [123] have demonstrated that the nanocomposite film prepared by combining graphite carbon nitride nanosheets and molybdenum disulfide nanodots into KGM exhibits crucial antibacterial properties, significantly extending the timeframe for realistic cherry tomato use. Researchers [124] developed a multifunctional composite film using EGCG, Pickering emulsion (PE), α-cyclodextrin (α-CD), and KGM. This film has outstanding antibacterial, antioxidant, and drug release qualities, and was specifically designed to improve the shelf life of perishable fruits. Furthermore, combining KGM with other materials to create dual membranes can compliment each other's performance, hence improving the membrane's overall performance. The researchers investigated the differences in physicochemical properties of composite membranes prepared with different mass ratios of chitosan (CS) and KGM [125]. The study found that the best mass ratio of CS to KGM was 1:1, and composite membranes had lower swelling and water vapor permeability. Another researcher incorporated quercetin-containing melanin-like nanoparticles into KGM/lactone (PCL) bilayers, which resulted in improved mechanical properties, UV protection, and water resistance [126]. The bilayer film is an innovative antimicrobial material that achieves a dual-mode synergistic bactericidal effect against bacteria by combining photothermal effect and controlled drug release technology. The material has potential applications in biomedicine, food packaging, and antimicrobial materials. KGM can also be used to preserve food in the form of coated microcapsules. Scientists investigated the effects of konjac glucomannan/thymol eatable coated (TKL) microcapsules on cell reinforcement action and the responsive oxygen species (ROS) mix in okra under low-temperature settings [127]. TKL40 (with a thymol grouping of 40 mg/mL) activated catalase and superoxide dismutase in okra while inhibiting polyphenol oxidase by promoting the combination of full phenols and flavonoids. It boosted the cell reinforcement limit of okra and protected the phenolic intensities in okra from the harm of over-oxidation, therefore delaying okra caramelization. KGM is used as a highly efficient transporter for unsaturated fats, flavorings, probiotics, and a wide range of bioactives [128]. The transporter creates a conveyance framework with a central type of hydrogel, creating an unmatched habitat for the encapsulated drugs. KGM has high biocompatibility, degradability, and water absorption and retention capabilities, making KGM-based hydrogels one of the best materials for creating edible electronic goods with applications in food, medicine, and environmental protection [129]. KGM can be utilized as utilitarian food sources: konjac tofu, konjac noodles, etc; as food-added substances: KGM has gel-forming, thickening, and other qualities and can be used to make thickeners and stabilizers; KGM has the ability to retain water, is antimicrobial, and forms films, making it suitable for food preservation. The application of KGM in food is shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 12.
Material and ingredient applications of KGM in foodstuffs.
6.2. Pharmaceuticals
Specialists demonstrated the promising applications of KGM-based composite materials in the biomedical field, which were used in the form of gels, microspheres, films, nanofibers, and nanoparticles for wound healing, drug delivery, tissue design, antibacterial purposes, and cancer treatment [130]. KGM exhibits potential benefits in wound healing. As a dissolvable dietary fiber, konjac glucomannan also improves insulin responsiveness in people with type 2 diabetes, assisting in the maintenance of stable blood glucose and lipid levels [131]. By combining konjac glucomannan with other polymers, it is possible to improve moisture retention on the injured surface while also increasing medication release, so speeding up the healing process [61]. Hydrogels, with their capacity to mirror the three-dimensional structure of the skin's natural extracellular matrix and good moisture-retaining capabilities, are beneficial to wound healing and have become the preferred material for producing wound dressings [132]. To create a CC45/OKG40/HS hydrogel, the researchers combined carboxymethyl chitosan (CC) and oxidized konjac glucomannan (OKG) in a Schiff base reaction, added steviol glycosides, and encapsulated micelles with thujaplicin [133]. The hydrogel was tested in vivo for its potential to reduce inflammation and promote reepithelialization, resulting in faster wound healing. The scientists [134] took advantage of the strong interaction between tannic corrosive (TA) and the konjac glucomannan (KGM) lattice by presenting it as a cross-connecting specialist while also inserting d-glucono-1,5-lactone (GL) into the polymer structure. The pre-arranged videos not only met the critical wetting requirements for wound dressings, but they also showed no hemolytic effects on human erythrocytes in blood similarity testing. The trial results also revealed that the KG/TA/GL film has the potential to considerably improve the migration of human dermal fibroblasts and shown remarkable antibacterial activity, indicating that it will be a promising candidate for wound healing applications. Using microfluidic spinning technology, researchers successfully created a unique KGM/PVP/EGCG composite film material [135]. This film had good antibacterial qualities and may be used as a wound dressing to facilitate healing.
KGM is widely used in a variety of structures, with the goal of developing specific drug delivery frameworks tailored to distinct physiological environments [58]. As a result, KGMs play an important role in the medication delivery system [136], which includes polysaccharides that can evade clearance by the reticuloendothelial framework, protect biomolecules from degradation, and increase the bioavailability of small particles, ensuring effective therapeutic effects [137]. Researchers [138] developed KGM-based shower-dried definitions for the combined pneumonic delivery of isoniazid (INH) and rifabutin (RFB), a first-line antituberculosis medication. Another researcher [139] developed an oral colon-limited drug delivery framework (OCDDS) based on acetyl konjac glucomannan (AceKGM) for precise distribution from the colon and compelling macrophage targeting in locations of confined aggravation. Researchers investigated the viability of tiny apoptotic bodies (sAB) produced from brain metastatic cancer cells as delivery agents [140]. The study found that combining anti-TNF-α antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) with cationic konjac glucomannan (cKGM) resulted in efficient loading of sABs and excellent brain delivery qualities. sABs were able to pass the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and be collected by microglial cells in the brain, significantly alleviating PD symptoms in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease (PD). This work reveals that sAB has considerable advantages as a brain-targeted delivery vehicle, not only in terms of delivery efficiency, but also in terms of large-scale manufacturing potential. The researchers contained the MIR31 mimic in OKGM microspheres, allowing it to be stably encapsulated and delivered in vivo [141]. After being injected into mice's large intestines by enema, the OKGM peptidome-MIR31 microspheres were able to locate and release the MIR31 mimic to the target tissues, effectively reducing the inflammatory response and promoting epithelial cell proliferation. Researchers have developed a novel nanodrug delivery system for colorectal cancer (CRC), sOKGM-PS-miR-31i/Cur [142]. This system combines a microRNA-31 inhibitor with curcumin and co-encapsulates it within an α-lactalbumin peptide. It is then embedded into thiolated TEMPO-oxidized konjac glucomannan microspheres. In CRC cell lines and AOM-DSS-induced CRC animal models, the system displayed superior CRC targeting, drug release stability, and mucosal adhesion and penetration capabilities. Following rectal injection, the device was able to successfully penetrate the colon's mucus layer, accurately target tumour cells, and effectively limit tumour growth. To summarize, sOKGM-PS-miR-31i/Cur microspheres offer an efficient and viable approach for CRC treatment due to their superior mucosal adherence and mucus penetration properties. Researchers [143] used KGM particles as a carrier for anti-tuberculosis medications in treating tuberculosis and discovered that they were readily uptaken by macrophages, with the microencapsulation procedure having no effect on the drug's efficiency. Furthermore, at acceptable doses, the particles exhibited no cytotoxicity for cells, and mouse trials revealed no evidence of inflammatory reactions.
KGM, as a natural polymer material, plays an important role in tissue engineering. KGM nanofibers have enormous potential for biological applications, but their actual use is hampered by a lack of efficient cross-linking procedures. To address this issue, researchers have devised a novel cross-linking approach that combines periodate oxidation with adipic dihydrazide (ADH) [144]. The method effectively produced durable and biocompatible nanofibers by partly oxidizing polysaccharides to dialdehyde polysaccharides before crosslinking them with ADH. These nanofibers have high water resistance, mechanical strength, and biocompatibility, indicating a bright future in biomedical applications. In addition, KGMs can likewise be integrated into proteins to deliver platforms for biomedical materials [145]. KGM can be compounded with other biopolymers, for example, sericin protein, to provide biomimetic frameworks with great properties [146]. To simplify the hydrogel's presentation, the scientists ingeniously combined konjac glucomannan (KGM) into a gallic corrosive (GA) framework, resulting in a composite hydrogel (GAK) that primarily improved its surface grip, soundness, and solubility [147].GAK hydrogel has excellent biocompatibility and antibacterial qualities, but it also significantly improves angiogenesis, collagen testimony, and epithelial recovery in diabetic rats during injury healing. GAK hydrogel can also successfully promote angiogenesis, collagen expression, and epithelium regeneration throughout the injury healing process in diabetic mice, while essentially lowering the outflow of irritation-related proteins and promoting rapid injury resolution. Along these lines, GAK hydrogel is thought to be an ideal dressing material for hastening diabetic injury recovery and has enormous potential for application.
6.3. Environmental protection
KGM possesses regular film-framing qualities, as well as excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility, and economic benefits [148]. In this way, KGM can be converted into soil stabilizer, eco-friendly composite membrane and construction materials, as well as used in air filtration and wastewater treatment, all of which contribute to environmental security. Researchers [149] created the KGM/CA/PVA ternary blended soil consolidant, a new biodegradable and environmentally friendly polymer that may be utilized to increase soil consolidation during tree transplanting. Researchers [150] used a nanocomposite medicine, TiO2/Cur/HPCD, with KGM to create a composite membrane with antibacterial characteristics and superior environmental protection. These materials and synthesis techniques play an essential role in decreasing pollution and conserving the natural environment. KGM is a type of retarder with excellent performance that can control the development contact of hydration items, so extending the setting time of concrete mortar [151]. Given plastic pollution caused by polymer-based anti-waste of time admixtures (AWAs), the scientists devised a novel method to improve the waste of time obstruction of reduced concrete mortars by incorporating minute amounts of KGM arrangement into them. This push improved the material's display and ensured the AWA item's ecological properties, resulting in a superior presentation and green AWA material [152]. Aerogel is an effective air filtration material, and KGM is appropriate for the preparation of aerogel with a large, unambiguous surface. Researchers [153] combined konjac glucomannan/Kodran gel (KC) aerogels and discovered that the material has a long useful life, with KC0.9 being the ideal choice for air filtration media due to its good filtration efficacy and reasonable air resistance. Scientists [154] created a natural inorganic biomass composite aerogel through a freeze-drying procedure, using KGM, hydrophilic isocyanate, water-solvent fire-resistant, and water glass as major raw components. The introduction of boron not only enhanced the aerogel's warm security, but it also significantly reduced the intensity discharge rate. Furthermore, the warm reproduction examination revealed that the best warm protection execution occurred when the protection layer thickness was between 40 and 60 mm. Another researcher [155] combined wheat straw and soybean extras into KGM aerogels and discovered that the addition of the two substances reduced the filtration check of KGM-based aerogels and, in general, increased their air permeability and hydrophobicity. Specialists [156] have blended semi-interpenetrating network-organized aerogels to address KGM, BN, and PI. Specifically, the synergistic effect of PI and BN significantly reduces the peak and total heat arrival of the KGM-based aerogel and provides excellent self-stifling qualities, demonstrating the warm protection execution of adept intensity executives throughout a wide temperature range. This readiness technique opens up new avenues of investigation into the high fire resistance of warm protective aerogel materials, which has a wide range of applications in the fields of energy conservation and discharge reduction. Additionally, KGM can be used for wastewater purging. Researchers [157] assembled recyclable and appealing KGM-Fe3O4 nanoparticles in a one-step technique to eradicate Cr(VI) heavy metal particles in wastewater treatment. Another researcher [158] developed a brilliant KGM/pectinCa-Mg (KPCCM) composite hydrogel using basic warm synergistic response innovation, which successfully recovers phosphate from wastewater due to its alkalinity self-discharge ability.
7. Conclusion and prospect
In this review, numerous approaches for the planning of KGM were examined, including boiling water extraction and ethanol precipitation, each of which have unique characteristics and can be chosen based on practical requirements. Because the process of extracting KGM from konjac is relatively cumbersome and there are established factories on the market that produce and sell high-quality KGM on a large scale, current research on konjac glucomannan extraction methods focuses on optimizing and improving ethanol extraction methods. Derivatization methods such as carboxymethylation, phosphorylation, sulfation, selenization and acetylation improve KGM's physicochemical qualities and bioactivities, widening its application domains. However, there are fewer studies on KGM derivatization. With the deeper understanding of konjac glucomannan and the continuous development of derivatization technology, more novel and efficient derivatization methods will be developed in the future.In terms of fundamental composition, KGM is made up of β-D-mannose and β-D-glucose. It has a helical structure with hydroxyl and carbonyl groups that form a hydrogen bonding network. KGM has a variety of biological actions, including anti-diabetic, prebiotic, antioxidant, immune-modulating, anti-cancer, weight reduction, antibacterial, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. However, there are certain practical hurdles to its implementation, such as preventing interactions with drugs and attaining large-scale use. KGM can be applied in the food industry, medicine, environmental protection, and other fields. KGM's unique physicochemical features and broad applicability will lead to additional novel applications in the future. While the application of KGM in the medical field has demonstrated tremendous potential and a series of remarkable innovative achievements, the process of promoting its widespread use inevitably faces a series of coexisting challenges and opportunities, among which large-scale production and efficient and controllable technology are critical aspects that must be addressed immediately.
In conclusion, the research progress on konjac glucomannan in recent years was summarized, demonstrating its wide application potential and continuous innovative development. In the future, with a thorough investigation of konjac glucomannan, its planning cycle will be more streamlined, its underlying representation will be more precise, and its derivatization procedures will be more diverse. Meanwhile, KGM's applications in food, medicine, and environmental assurance will expand, improving human health and practical outcomes.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Qiurui Hu: Writing – original draft. Gangliang Huang: Writing – review & editing. Hualiang Huang: Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Contributor Information
Gangliang Huang, Email: huangdoctor226@163.com.
Hualiang Huang, Email: hlhuang@wit.edu.cn.
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