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. 2025 Apr 11;13:e19251. doi: 10.7717/peerj.19251

Table 1. Subgroup analysis.

2017–2019 (pre-COVID-19) 2020–2023 (during the pandemic)
Subgroup No. of studies Pooled prevalence (95% CI) Heterogeneity, I 2 (%) Cochran’s Q p-value No. of studies Pooled prevalence (95% CI) Heterogeneity, I 2 (%) Cochran’s Q p-value
Sex
Male 31 21.0 (17.8–24.3) 99.2 639.8 <0.001 22 20.7 (14.8–26.7) 99.6 179.8 <0.001
Female 32 26.6 (22.2–30.9) 99.5 22 25.9 (18.2–33.7) 99.7
Age group
60–69 19 24.3 (18.4–30.2) 99.5 180.8 <0.001 7 25.6 (6.7–44.4) 99.8 5.6 0.059
70–79 16 27.4 (20.5–34.3) 99.2 6 32.0 (7.3–56.8) 99.7
≥80 13 31.0 (21.8–40.3) 98.8 8 33.7 (18.1–49.4) 97.9
Living area
Rural 11 26.5 (15.5–37.4) 99.9 1500 <0.001 8 26.4 (15.6–37.2) 99.4 66.8 <0.001
Urban 10 19.5 (14.6–24.4) 99.4 6 20.0 (11.7–28.4) 98.8
Education level
Primary and below 22 24.0 (19.3–28.7) 99.5 794.8 <0.001 14 31.0 (22.5–39.5) 99.5 122.2 <0.001
Junior high school 14 18.9 (14.2–23.6) 98.6 9 23.5 (13.0–34.1) 98.9
Senior high school and above 17 18.1 (14.6–21.5) 97.7 9 17.9 (8.5–27.3) 98.6
Marital status
Single/Divorce/Widowed 21 29.8 (23.7–35.8) 99.3 181.7 <0.001 16 32.5 (23.0–42.0) 99.0 489.7 <0.001
Married 21 23.6 (19.0–28.2) 99.6 16 22.0 (14.7–29.3) 99.6
Residential status
Live alone 17 29.7 (23.0–36.4) 98.5 319.8 <0.001 8 36.0 (20.0–52.1) 96.9 117.2 <0.001
Not live alone 17 23.0 (18.9–27.0) 99.6 8 17.7 (10.7–24.6) 98.8