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. 2025 Apr 19;15:13624. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-98047-3

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Formant amplitude factor across age, parental gender, and interaction context. Panel (a) shows a significant decrease in formant amplitude factor between 3 and 9 months, followed by a significant increase between 9 and 18 months. Panel (b) presents the significant interaction between parent (father/mother) and age, with fathers showing lower values at 9 months. Panel (c) displays the significant interaction between condition (two- and three-person) and age, with lower formant amplitude factor values in the two-person condition, particularly at 9 months. Data points represent individual participants, and error bars indicate standard error. Differences across conditions are discussed in relation to parental gender, interaction context, and child age.