Table 1.

Food system characteristics by typology

	Rural and traditional	Informal and expanding	Emerging and diversifying	Modernizing and formalizing	Industrial and consolidated
Production	Farming is mainly done by smallholders, and agricultural yields are typically low. Among most farmers, production is typically focused on staple crops, some of which they keep to eat, and a limited number of cash crops.	Agricultural productivity is higher on average than in rural and traditional food systems. Medium- and some large-scale farms are beginning to emerge.	Increased number of medium- and large-scale commercial farms coexist alongside large numbers of small-scale farms. These small-scale farms are more linked to markets than in more traditional food system types.	Agricultural productivity is generally higher than in emerging, informal, and traditional systems. Larger farms rely more on mechanization and input-intensive practices.	Farming is a small proportion of the economy. There are a small number of large-scale, input-intensive farms that serve specialized domestic and international markets (e.g. horticulture, animal feed, processed food ingredients, biofuels).
Supply chains	Supply chains are short due to smaller urban populations, resulting in many local, fragmented markets. The lack of refrigeration and storage facilities results in large food losses for some crops, which may make producers less likely to diversify into perishable foods. The quantity and diversity of foods available varies seasonally, often with a pronounced lean season.	Modern food supply chains are common for grains and other dry foods. While there are still small-scale processors, many large-scale processors and centralized distribution centers have also emerged. Modern chains are also emerging for fresh foods, though traditional supply chains continue to dominate for these foods due to weak cold chains and inadequate market infrastructure. Processed and packaged foods are available in both urban and rural areas. Food processing may include a combination of locally sourced and imported ingredients.	Modern supply chains for fresh foods, including fruits, vegetables, and animal-source foods, are developing more rapidly. Urban areas source both dry and fresh foods through longer supply chains and rely on food imports more than traditional and informal food systems. Processed and packaged foods are more available in rural areas.	Food supply chain infrastructure is more developed, which results in fewer food losses on the farm and beyond the farm gate. Food and beverage manufacturing represent a smaller percentage of overall manufacturing because countries in this type have more manufacturing in nonfood sectors. Dietary energy is derived from diverse food sources and better national distribution chains enhance the role of food imports in enabling more year-round availability of diverse foods.	Market consolidation is common—large-sized food retailers procure directly from processors and urban wholesalers procure directly from farmers, which reduces the number of intermediaries along the supply chain. Supply chains are long, with national and international sourcing of nearly all types of foods.
Retail and markets	Food is mainly sold in informal market outlets, including independently owned small shops, street vendors, and central/district markets. Supermarkets are rare outside of capital cities.	Demand for convenience foods increases as the formal labor force grows and includes more women. Urbanization and income growth also play a role. Supermarkets and fast food are rapidly expanding and, compared to rural and traditional food systems, are more accessible. However, most people continue to obtain most of their food from informal market outlets, especially for fruits, vegetables, and animal source foods.	Supermarkets are common even in smaller cities and towns, and their market share is growing rapidly. Processed foods, including ultra-processed foods, are common in urban areas and also found in many rural areas. Most fresh food continues to be acquired through informal markets, but the share of supermarkets is rising and significant.	Multiple supermarket chains exist within cities and larger-sized towns, but their growth is slower than in late transitional systems. These supermarkets and other modern retail outlets hold a large share of processed and dry goods sales, have captured a larger market share of fresh foods, and low-income consumers are much more likely to shop in them.	Supermarket density is high in urban and metropolitan areas. In general, only small towns lack a supermarket and most medium-sized towns have multiple outlets. The formal food sector has captured nearly all of the food eaten domestically, including fresh foods. There is growth in luxury food retail, as well as “fast-casual” restaurants, which market higher-quality fast food.

Source: Food Systems Dashboard (Marshall et al. 2021, Food Systems Dashboard 2024).