Table 2.

Role of probiotics in orthopaedic conditions

Probiotic strain	Mechanism of action	Orthopedic condition	Outcome	Ref.
Lactobacillus	Autophagy and control of inflammatory cell death of chondrocytes	Osteoarthritis	The daily supply of butyrate showed a tendency to decrease necroptosis by inducing autophagy and reversing impaired autophagy by the inflammatory environment	Cho et al[84], 2022
Lactobacillus	Prevention of growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Orthopedic implant infections	Supplementation with cell-free supernatant demonstrated antiadhesive, antibiofilm, and toxic properties to Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Jeyanathan et al[85], 2021
Bifidobacterium and muribaculum	Reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines	Fractures	Aging exacerbates the inflammatory response to fracture leading to high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and disruption of the intestinal microbiota	Roberts et al[86], 2023
Cumulative	Nociceptive stimulus, neurotransmitters and hormones	Musculoskeletal pain	Modifiable and non-modifiable factors that are known to contribute to changes to the gut microbiome affects musculoskeletal pain	Tonelli Enrico et al[87], 2022