Table 4.

Hypotheses testing results.

	β	Mean	STDEV	T statistics	P values
H1: AI literacy → AI dependency	0.505	0.518	0.120	4.221	0.000
H2: AI trust → AI dependency	0.374	0.364	0.100	3.738	0.000
H3: AI dependency → critical thinking	− 0.973	− 0.975	0.077	12.665	0.000
H5: AI dependency → problem-solving	− 1.043	− 1.051	0.071	14.767	0.000
H4: AI dependency → self-confidence	− 0.980	− 0.982	0.072	13.608	0.000
H6: AI dependency → creative thinking	− 1.016	− 1.021	0.075	13.514	0.000
H7: AI dependency → communication	− 0.954	− 0.966	0.087	10.961	0.000
H8: AI dependency → collaboration	− 0.934	− 0.938	0.084	11.075	0.000