Table 2. Multilevel logistic regression analyses for associations of factors and COVID-19 vaccine confidence.

Variables	Model 1 (crude)		Model 2 (variables in the individual-level)		Model 3 (variables in the individual-and country-level)
	β (95% CI)	P value	β (95% CI)	P value	β (95% CI)	P value
Cultural tightness	0.56 (0.26 to 0.85)	.001	2.13 (1.95 to 2.30)	<.001	1.94 (1.72 to 2.15)	<.001
Individual level
Age group, years (18‐24 years as reference)
25‐34	−0.06 (−0.16 to 0.04)	.22	−0.10 (−0.18 to −0.02)	.02	−0.10 (−0.18 to −0.02)	.02
35‐44	0.00 (−0.10 to 0.10)	.99	−0.05 (−0.13 to 0.03)	.24	−0.05 (−0.13 to 0.03)	.24
45‐54	0.16 (0.05 to 0.26)	.003	0.03 (−0.06 to 0.12)	.51	0.03 (−0.06 to 0.12)	.52
≥55	0.76 (0.66 to 0.86)	<.001	0.34 (0.26 to 0.42)	<.001	0.35 (0.27 to 0.43)	<.001
Sex (male as reference)
Female	−0.39 (−0.45 to −0.33)	<.001	−0.29 (−0. 34 to −0.25)	<.001	−0.29 (−0.34 to −0.25)	<.001
Education level (primary or below as reference)
Secondary	0.08 (−0.02 to 0.19)	.13	−0.03 (−0.12 to 0.06)	.49	−0.03 (−0.11 to 0.06)	.55
University or above	0.31 (0.20 to 0.41)	<.001	0.14 (0.05 to 0.23)	.002	0.16 (0.07 to 0.25)	<.001
Other educational level	−0.48 (−0.75 to −0.22)	<.001	−0.43 (−0.65 to −0.21)	<.001	−0.42 (−0.64 to −0.20)	<.001
Religion (largest as reference)
Minority	0.34 (−0.40 to −0.27)	<.001	−0.14 (−0.20 to −0.09)	<.001	−0.13 (−0.19 to −0.08)	<.001
Refusal to answer	−0.84 (−0.97 to −0.71)	<.001	−0.24 (−0.35 to −0.13)	<.001	−0.24 (−0.35 to −0.14)	<.001
Individual perception	1.53 (1.50 to 1.55)	<.001	1.48 (1.46 to 1.50)	<.001	1.48 (1.46 to 1.50)	<.001
Individual perception and cultural tightness	—a	—	−0.42 (−0.44 to −0.39）	<.001	−0.42 (−0.44 to −0.40)	<.001
Country level
Individualism	−0.43 (−0.77 to −0.08)	.02	—	—	−0.28 (−0.52 to −0.04)	.08
Indulgence	0.02 (−0.39 to 0.44)	.92	—	—	0.046 (−0.23 to 0.14)	.70
Long-term orientation	−0.39 (−0.78 to 0.01)	.07	—	—	0.03 (−0.23 to 0.29)	.84
Power distance	0.16 (−0.20 to 0.52)	.40	—	—	0.00 (−0.21 to 0.21)	.98
Uncertainty avoidance	−0.28 (−0.62 to 0.06)	.12	—	—	−0.17 (−0.36 to −0.01)	.14
GNIb	0.16 (−0.28 to 0.59)	.49	—	—	0.19 (−0.01 to 0.39)	.13
Population density	0.02 (−0.36 to 0.40)	.91	—	—	0.13 (−0.07 to 0.32)	.30
Survey time (2020 as reference)
2021	−0.65 (−0.82 to −0.48)	<.001	—	—	−0.54 (−0.67 to −0.37)	<.001
2022	−0.45 (−0.58 to −0.33)	<.001	—	—	−0.23 (−0.34 to −0.10)	<.001
Survey methodology (online as reference)
CATIc	0.77 (0.08 to 1.47)	.04	—	—	0.11 (−0.31 to 0.53)	.69
Face-to-face	1.03 (0.32 to 1.74)	.009	—	—	0.58 (0.12 to 1.02)	.04

^aNot available.

^bGNI: gross national income.

^cCATI: computer-assisted telephone interview.