Table 5.

Summary on the combined use of cancer immunotherapies and microbiotas for combinatorial therapies with preclinical and clinical evidences.

Immunotherapy	Microbiota-Based Approach	Mechanism	Preclinical/Clinical Evidence	Potential Benefits	References
Checkpoint Inhibitors	Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT)	Enhance immune response, reduce immune suppression	Preclinical: improved tumor control, increased TILs	Enhanced efficacy, reduced toxicity	(175, 176)
CAR-T Cell Therapy	Microbiome modulation via dietary fiber	Improve CAR-T cell expansion, persistence	Preclinical: enhanced CAR-T cell efficacy	Increased treatment success	(177)
Cancer Vaccines	Probiotics (e.g., Lactobacillus)	Enhance antigen presentation, stimulate immune response	Clinical: improved vaccine efficacy in melanoma	Enhanced immune response	(178)
Adoptive T-Cell Therapy	Microbiota-derived metabolites (e.g., SCFAs)	Enhance T-cell function, reduce immune suppression	Preclinical: improved T-cell expansion, tumor control	Improved treatment outcomes	(179)
Oncolytic Viruses	Bifidobacterium-based therapy	Enhance virus-mediated tumor lysis, stimulate immune response	Preclinical: improved tumor control, increased survival	Enhanced antitumor efficacy	(180)
Immune Checkpoint Blockade	Akkermansia muciniphila-based therapy	Enhance immune response, reduce immune suppression	Clinical: improved treatment outcomes in melanoma	Enhanced efficacy, reduced toxicity	(181)