Table 3. Association Between Living Within a Water Service Area With and Without Golf Courses on Vulnerable and Nonvulnerable Groundwater Regions and Risk of Parkinson Disease (PD) in Southern Minnesota.
| Water service area type | All patients, No. (%)a,b | Adjusted for patient demographicsc,b | Further adjusted for region characteristicsc,b | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PD patients (n = 418) | Controls (n = 3996) | aOR (95% CI) | P value | aOR (95% CI) | P value | |
| Groundwater with golf coursed | 342 (13.3) | 2227 (86.7) | 1 [Reference] | NA | 1 [Reference] | NA |
| Groundwater without golf course | 20 (2.1) | 948 (97.9) | 0.13 (0.08-0.20) | <.001 | 0.51 (0.31-0.83) | .01 |
| Private well | 56 (6.4) | 821 (93.6) | 0.41 (0.31-0.55) | <.001 | 0.67 (0.47-0.95) | .02 |
| Groundwater vulnerability | ||||||
| Total, No. | 362 | 3175 | NA | NA | NA | NA |
| Vulnerable groundwater with golf course | 319 (16.4) | 1629 (83.6) | 1 [Reference] | NA | 1 [Reference] | NA |
| Vulnerable groundwater with no golf course | 14 (2.8) | 484 (97.2) | 0.14 (0.08-0.23) | <.001 | 0.74 (0.43-1.27) | .28 |
| Nonvulnerable groundwater with golf course | 23 (3.7) | 598 (96.3) | 0.18 (0.12-0.29) | <.001 | 0.55 (0.33-0.92) | .02 |
| Nonvulnerable groundwater with no golf course | 6 (1.3) | 464 (98.7) | 0.10 (0.06-0.16) | <.001 | 0.52 (0.29-0.94) | .03 |
Abbreviations: aOR, adjusted odds ratio; NA, not applicable.
a
Percentages were calculated row-wise.
b
Excludes populations outside of Minnesota.
c
Demographics included age, sex, race, and ethnicity. Region characteristics included median household income, Rural Urban Commuting Area classification, and health care utilization.
d
aORs are reported using the exposed group as the reference in this table and reported for the exposed group in the text (inverse).