Table 2.

Use cases of blockchain technology in clinical research

Study plan	[10, 25, 26]	Blockchain technology provides a robust solution by permanently recording all aspects and metadata of the research process, including protocols, hypotheses, analysis methods, and subject selection criteria, all with chronological timestamps
Research subject/patient recruitment	[21, 27, 28]	Blockchain has the potential to aggregate all patient-related data, creating a holistic medical history accessible to investigators through a shared framework. It also empowers patients to have more control over their medical data
Patient consent	[21, 23, 25–27]	Blockchain can improve traceability, accountability, and transparency by providing an immutable record of patient consent; this way, it can be easily assessed whether the clinical study complies with the regulations
Data collection	[25, 26, 28–30]	During the data collection phase, blockchain technology offers a time-stamped and signed recording system for the gathered data
Data analyzing	[10, 23, 26]	Data analysts or investigators in clinical research can analyze patient data using these domain-specific smart contracts on a blockchain network. In this phase, statistical analysis should be time-stamped before the data analysis process is completed
Data sharing	[10, 25, 26]	During clinical research, investigators, research subjects, and study funders can efficiently and securely share sensitive personal data using the blockchain structure. Sharing raw clinical data, statistical analysis plans, and datasets significantly contributes to reproducibility and supports clinical meta-analysis studies
Regulatory issues	[23]	Smart contracts embedded in the blockchain can guarantee compliance with clinical trial regulations and rules and protocols set by regulatory bodies
Publication and reporting phase	[25, 26, 28]	Blockchain technology enables detailed evaluations by granting reviewers access to information such as the research protocol, data, and methods. These capabilities significantly enhance the transparency and accountability of the reporting and publishing process