Table 4.

Summary of example nanomaterials for bone regeneration

Category	Cement	Active principle	Main results	Refs.
Metal-based nanoparticles	α-TCP/CS biphasic systems	Fe3O4/GO nanocomposites	A 10 wt% Fe3O4/GO formulation exhibits optimal magnetothermal performance Effectively eliminate residual tumor cells while maintaining the cement's structural integrity Preserve essential properties including biocompatibility and osteogenic potential	[148]
	CPC	Iron oxide nanoparticles	Enhance the mechanical strength of the CPC scaffolds Promote the adhesion and spreading of human dental pulp stem cells 3% IONP enhances alkaline phosphatase activity and bone formation by 1.5–2 folds	[149]
	PMMA	Nano-MgO particles	Enhance handling properties when nano-MgO content was below 15 wt% Promote higher calcium nodule formation and increased osteogenic gene expression Superior bone-bonding strength after 12 weeks of implantation	[150]
	CPC	Gadolinium oxide nanoparticles	Enhance the mechanical properties of the bone cement (compressive strength and E-modulus) Promote human osteoblast proliferation	[151]
	CPC	Copper nanoparticle	1 wt% Cu enhance osteogenic potential through increase ALP activity and cell growth Provid additional benefits of angiogenic and antibacterial properties	[152]
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles	MCPC	HMSNs-PTH-ALN	Enhance ion/drug release, controlled degradation, and create a porous structure for cell growth Improve the osteoporotic pathophysiological microenvironment Enhance vascularized bone defect regeneration	[156]
	MPC	MSN-ALN	Significantly enhance the performance of cement (compressive strength, extended setting time, and superior injectability) Improve extracellular matrix mineralization Upregulation of osteogenic genes	[69]
Bioactive glass nanoparticles	CPC	BGn	Enhance surface area, superior protein adsorption capacity, and controlled release of bioactive ions (Si and Ca) Promote osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells and angiogenic behavior of endothelial cells Superior osteoinductive and osteoconductive properties	[81]
	α-TCP	Mesoporous bioactive glass nanoparticles	The nanocomposite improved surface area (18.6 m2/g), ion release, and protein binding (252 mg/g) Readily form hydroxyapatite layers in vitro	[158]
	Nanoscale cement	Sr-BGn	Promote osteogenesis through enhanced expression of osteogenic genes and proteins Inhibit osteoclastogenesis by reducing osteoclastic activity and bone resorption	[159]
Other Inorganic nanomaterials	CPC	GO-Cu nanocomposite	Graphene oxide serves as a carrier for Cu ions Enhance cell adhesion while enabling uniform scaffold coating Improve the adhesion and proliferation of BMSC	[162]
	PMMA	Amine-functionalized graphene	Demonstrate exceptional osteointegration capabilities while maintaining minimal cytotoxicity Promote calcification in vivo Reduce cellular oxidative stress	[163]
	PMMA	Hydrophilic graphene oxide	Enhance bone-material contact and superior osteogenic capabilities	[164]
	PMMA	Layered double hydroxides	Decrease the maximum polymerization temperature by 7.0 °C Alleviate stress-shielding osteolysis and indirectly promote osseointegration Release of magnesium ions and create a favorable microenvironment	[167]
Polymer nanomaterials	CPC	PLGA nanofibers	Reduce CPC brittleness and improve its mechanical properties PLGA nanofibers create pores during degradation Release bioactive factors and create an acidic environment	[168]
	CPC	Short PLGA nanofibers	Dynamically controllable biodegradability PLGA-released lactic acid enhances vascularization	[169]
	MPC	Electrospun silk fibroin	The hierarchical structure enables rapid oxygen and nutrient infiltration Improve MPC strength and neutralize its alkaline environment	[42]