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. 2025 May 12;24:201. doi: 10.1186/s12933-025-02738-0

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Effects of cardiometabolic diseases on HFpEF and HFrEF IVW were used to investigate the association between cardiometabolic diseases and Heart failure. When the OR value is greater than 1, we believe that this exposure is acting as a risk factor and has a causal effect. If it is less than 1, it may act as a protective factor. BMI: body mass index; T2D: type 2 diabetes mellitus; HBP: high blood pressure; eGFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; TG: triglycerides; TC: total cholesterol; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; OR: Odds ratio; IVW, Inverse-variance weighting; 95% CI, 95% confidence interval. P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant