| Electrospinning |
High surface area, scalable, fine control |
Specific solvent requirements, costly |
Textiles, filtration, biomedical |
Moderate (solvent use, energy) |
Moderate to high (equipment costs) |
48–50
|
| Self-assembly |
Low-cost, green, simple process |
Limited control over fiber morphology |
Sustainable applications, bio-based products |
Very low (green process) |
Low (simple process, less equipment) |
51 and 52
|
| Hydrothermal/solvothermal |
High crystallinity, controlled morphology |
High-energy requirements, expensive |
Large-scale production, high-performance materials |
Moderate (energy-intensive) |
High (specialized equipment, energy) |
53 and 54
|
| Biomimetic synthesis |
Precision, functionalization, biocompatibility |
High cost, scalability issues, complexity |
Biomedical, sustainable packaging, cosmetics |
Low |
Hight |
55 and 56
|
| Enzymatic hydrolysis |
Biodegradable, environmentally friendly |
High cost of enzymes, slow process |
Biodegradable applications, small-scale |
Very low (biodegradable enzymes) |
High (enzyme cost, slow process) |
57 and 58
|
