Table 3. ChNFs in biologically active matrices and TE applications.

Matrix	Chitin origin & isoform	Additives	Biomaterials	Role of CHNFs	TE application	Ref.
Chitin			Electrospun nano-fiber mats	No-inflammation in vivo improve cell attachment and spreading	Oral mucosa	38
	Alpha isoforms		Nanofiber mat	Surface deacetylation increases cell adhesion and proliferation	Biomedical materials	165
	Crab alpha isoform		Wet-spinning microfibers	High water sorption capacity supports the proliferation of rat cardiac myoblasts and mouse bone osteoblasts	Cardiac bone	21
	Alpha isoform	Carbon nanotubes	Hydrogels	Enhance mechanical properties hemocompatible biocompatible to neuronal, and Schwann cells improve neuronal cell behavior	Nerve	166
	Alpha isoform	Hydroxyapatite crystals	Microsphere scaffolds	Promote cell adhesion in vivo bone healing	Bone	167
		Alkaline phosphatase	Mineralized nanopaper	Enhance mechanical properties homogenous and spatial controlled mineralization	Bone	167
		Hydroxypeptide	Hydrogel/cryogel	Enhance mechanical properties	Cartilage	168
Chitosan	Alpha isoform		Films	Enhance mechanical properties. Promote cell adhesion and proliferation	Skin	169
	Alpha isoform		Films	Enhance mechanical properties to improve biological activities	Dermal tissue	170
	Shrimp alpha isoform		Porous microspheres	Enhance mechanical properties. Allow hESCs multi-lineage differentiation	3D cell culture	171
	Alpha isoform		Films	Enhance mechanical properties orientation of structural elements increase specific conductivity promote skin fibroblast adhesion, viability, and proliferation	Skin	172
Cellulose silk			Hydrogel	Induce hMSCs osteogenic differentiation	Bone	173
	Alpha Isoform	Hydroxyapatite	Hydrogel multilayer films or membrane	Enhance mechanical properties self-bonding function	Biomedical materials	174
Collagen	Shrimp alpha isoform		Microfibers composite	Enhance mechanical properties and induce cell alignment	Vascular muscle	174
	Squid pen beta isoform		Films	Complement collagen biocompatibility on fibroblast growth	Biomedical materials	175
Gelatin	Crab alpha isoform		Films	Enhance wound healing process	Biomedical materials	124
	Crab alpha isoform		Nanocomposite films	Enhance mechanical properties	Biomedical materials	176
	Crab alpha isoform		Hydrogels	Enhance mechanical properties	Tendons ligament	177
Gelatin methacrylate	Squid pen beta isoform		Hydrogels	Enhance mechanical properties	Vascular	178
Lignin	Alpha isoform		Microcapsule like system	Biocompatible anti-inflammatory activity	Skin	179