Relationship between mental endurance, mental training, and emotional intelligence in elite athletes

Abstract

Physical strength alone is not enough in today’s sports’ society, where athletes’ performance is geared around winning; the body’s demand for mental training is growing every day. The aim of this study is to examine the mental endurance, mental training and emotional intelligence levels of elite level individual athletes; to evaluate the relationships between these psychological variables in a multifactorial structure and to determine whether these variables show significant differences according to demographic characteristics such as gender, age, education level and duration of sportsmanship. This will offer useful strategies to maximize the performance of elite athletes. In this cross-sectional study, a quantitative research method was applied using the survey model. A total of 242 elite Turkish athletes competing in individual sports branches in the Turkish National Teams in 2023 to 2024 participated in the study. Athletes’ data was gathered and examined between January 02 and March 02, 2024. The data were collected using the Sport Mental Endurance Inventory, Sport Mental Training Inventory, and Sport Emotional Intelligence Scale. Nonparametric tests were applied for statistical analysis. The findings of this study showed that there were significant differences in mental endurance, mental training, and emotional intelligence levels according to gender, age, and sport branch variables. It was found that male athletes aged between 26 to 33 years had higher levels of mental endurance and emotional intelligence. In addition, it was determined that female athletes aged 21 years and over had higher levels of mental training and emotional intelligence. High positive correlations were found between mental endurance and emotional intelligence and between mental training and emotional intelligence. The development of mental endurance and emotional intelligence is of great importance for elite athletes to improve their success and performance. These findings suggest that mental endurance and emotional intelligence levels of athletes may differ according to demographic characteristics such as gender, age, and sport branches. These factors may have significant effects on athletes’ performances.

1. Introduction

Physical strength alone is insufficient in today’s society, where sports competition is at the forefront and athletes’ performance is geared around winning; the body’s demand for mental training is growing every day. As important as strength, power, quickness, speed, and coordination are in increasing the performance of an athlete, mental endurance, mental training, and emotional intelligence are important before, during, and after competitions. It is a wrong practice to focus only on the physical development of athletes and ignore other areas specially mental health and emotional intelligence. The ability of elite athletes to achieve and sustain success is closely related not only to physical competencies but also to having a strong mental structure. Mental resilience refers to the ability of athletes to cope with the pressure, stress and challenges they face in situations that require high performance, while mental training is a process that supports this resilience and reinforces athletes’ ability to focus, motivate and strategize. Emotional intelligence, on the other hand, can be defined as the ability of athletes to understand and manage both their own emotions and those of those around them. The combination of these 3 elements enables athletes to excel not only during competition, but also throughout their entire sporting career. Mental endurance is the psychology that enables individuals to maintain and improve their performance in challenging situations.^[1] It is the ability to show the highest level of development and performance in competitive situations,^[2] to maintain stability under pressure,^[3] and to cope more effectively than competitors in the face of difficulties that may arise in training and home competitions.^[4] Mental endurance enables athletes to cope with challenges to achieve a specific goal,^[5] to have unique psychological qualities,^[6] to perform better under pressure by focusing, appearing confident, and making the right decisions against their opponents.^[7]

Mental training is a learning process in which individuals keep the internal and external effects of their behavior under control,^[8] the movement is designed in the mind before it is performed,^[8] mental visualizations are made in the face of situations that may develop in physical activities,^[9] psychological processes are managed and physical activities are not involved.^[10] When mental training models are examined, it is used to make athletes aware of how they can work more effectively to achieve their goals,^[11] to share the problems faced by athletes and coaches during competitions, to enable athletes to concentrate more internally,^[12] to prepare themselves for external influences and to determine the strategies that the athlete will use during the competition.^[8]

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions quickly, to conclude, to make explanations, to identify and produce emotions in troubled processes, to understand information with emotions, and to manage emotions.^[13] Emotional intelligence is the ability to develop skills in any situation,^[13] to develop unique behaviors,^[14] and to reveal individual behaviors with emotional characteristics.^[15] The components of emotional intelligence are that individuals do not give up psychological or psychomotor behaviors that they like, postpone their behaviors when they are enthusiastic, produce ideas under psychological pressures, put themselves in the other person’s shoes, and always have hope for the future.^[16] Athletes who possess high emotional intelligence are better able to comprehend and control both their own and their teammates’ emotions, which enhances both team and individual performance.

The ability of elite athletes to reach and maintain high performance levels depends on their mental characteristics as well as their physical abilities. Mental endurance helps athletes develop resilience against external factors that can negatively affect their performance by increasing their capacity to cope with stress, pressure and negative situations. Mental training enables athletes to develop mental skills that are critical for performance, such as focus, motivation and self-confidence. Emotional intelligence refers to athletes’ ability to manage their own emotions and those of their teammates, which makes it possible to make effective decisions and maintain emotional balance in highly competitive environments. These 3 traits are critical for elite athletes to both maximize their individual performance and maintain a successful career in the long term. Therefore, research on the development and effects of these traits has an important place in the sport psychology literature. The aim of this study was to understand the effects of these factors on sport performance by examining in detail the mental endurance, mental training and emotional intelligence levels of elite-level individual athletes. Today, it is recognized that athletic success is directly related not only to physical competence but also to psychological resilience and emotional competence. Mental resilience, mental training practices, and emotional intelligence stand out as critical factors that affect both the athlete’s performance and the sustainability of their sport life. In addition, it was analyzed whether these characteristics differ according to demographic variables such as gender, age, education level, and sport duration. In this context, it is foreseen that the findings to be obtained can make important contributions to the sport sciences literature and provide strategic recommendations for athletes to optimize their performance. Our research aimed to be an important reference point for both the scientific community and practitioners by revealing how these elements come together and contribute to the success of elite athletes. In this context, our study was based on the following hypotheses: The level of mental endurance, mental training, and emotional intelligence of individual elite athletes will show significant differences depending on demographic variables such as gender, age, education level, and sport duration. The study focused only on individual sports in order to examine the mental processes of individual athletes in more detail. The individual sports were selected taking into account the accessibility of the participants and the mental and emotional demands of the sports.

2. Materials and methods

In this study, the survey model was used among quantitative research methods. In cross-sectional observational studies, the distribution of participants on specific scales was described, and explanations were proposed based on the findings. This method, which is widely used in social sciences, is a descriptive method used to analyze the basic coverage areas of the sample group (gender, age, and years of active sports).

2.1. Study design and participants

A cross-sectional study was conducted between September 2023 and May 2024. We performed a power analysis using a significance level (α) of 0.05, power (1-β) of 0.80, an effect size of 0.33, and actual power = 80.0 The analysis indicated that a minimum of 230 subjects would be needed in our study. In this study, 242 Turkish athletes who participated in competitions as competitors in the national team in individual sports in the Turkish National Teams were included in the research group. The demographic characteristics of the participants included in the study are given in Table 1.

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of the participants.

Features	Categories	n	%
Gender	Male	147	60.7
	Female	95	39.3
Age	18–20 Years	150	61.9
	21–23 Years	45	18.6
	24 Years and Over	47	19.5
Years of active sports	1–5 Years	115	47.5
	6–10 Years	73	30.1
	11 Years and Over	54	22.4
Branches	Military Pentathlon	16	9.9
	Athletics	30	18.5
	Bocce	7	4.3
	Boxing	7	4.3
	Gymnastics	11	6.8
	Fencing	28	17.3
	Wrestling	10	6.2
	Weightlifting	8	4.9
	Karate	8	4.9
	Archery	5	3.1
	Orienteering	9	5.6
	Teakwondo	4	2.5
	Bodybuilding	11	6.8
	Table Tennis	8	4.9
Total		242	100.0

When the sports mentioned are analyzed, it is seen that some of the branches are competed individually through one’s own performance, while others are competed directly against an opponent. Sports such as athletics, archery, orienteering, and weightlifting are based on the individual performance of the athletes, and although there is indirect competition through the results of the opponents, the athlete mainly competes with himself/herself and with the set goals. In contrast, sports such as boxing, wrestling, fencing, karate, and taekwondo are based on direct physical or technical confrontations with an opponent, and athletes need to overcome their opponents to be successful. Sports such as bocce, table tennis, and military pentathlon have an element of direct confrontation with an opponent, but require team strategy or individual skill-based performance. Finally, in sports such as gymnastics and bodybuilding, athletes are judged by a jury on their individual performances and scored according to the performance of their opponents, but there is no direct physical competition.

Inclusion criteria:

• -Volunteering to do research,
• -To be an athlete in the Turkish National teams in 2023 to 2024,
• -Train at least 6 times a week,

Exclusion criteria:

• -Presence of chronic diseases that may prevent exercise (heart, diabetes, kidney disease, etc)
• -Presence of musculoskeletal system diseases,
• -Students with a body mass index outside the normal range,
• -Athletes not competing in the national team,

This study was conducted according to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and ethical rules. The Google Forms application was used to collect the data, and the application was prepared to allow online response collection to personal information, mental endurance, mental training, and emotional intelligence scales. Afterward, male and female athletes of the Turkish national teams in individual sports were contacted via e-mail to obtain the necessary permissions to collect data. After obtaining the necessary permissions from the coaches and administrators of the athletes, the forms were sent to the athletes via the link address. Athletes were informed that participation in the study was voluntary. Before answering the survey participants were asked if they agreed to participate in the study via a consent form that included the description and the aim of the study. After 60 days, statistical analysis was performed on the correctly completed questionnaire data. The ethics committee approval of the study was obtained at the meeting of Bandirma Onyedi Eylül University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee dated 05/12/2022 and numbered 2022-10.

2.2. Data collection tools

For this study, mental endurance, mental training, emotional intelligence scales, and a personal information form created by the researchers were used.

2.2.1. Mental endurance inventory in sport (MES)

It is a psychometric instrument developed to measure the mental endurance levels of athletes. This inventory is a widely used scale in the field of sport psychology and aims to assess the capacity of athletes to cope with the challenges they face in a competitive environment. It was developed to determine the mental endurance of athletes and adapted into Turkish by Altintas.^[17,18] The inventory: Confidence: This subdimension represents the athlete’s self-belief and confidence in the face of difficulties. The items that determine the self-confidence level of athletes are measured with questions numbered 1, 5, 6, 11, 13, and 14. Persistence: This dimension refers to the athlete’s perseverance towards their goals and determination to continue in the face of obstacles. Questions 3, 8, 10, and 12 evaluate this subdimension. Control: This subdimension measures the athlete’s ability to manage emotions and external circumstances. Questions 2, 4, 9, and 7 cover the control dimension. Athletes make a 4-point Likert-type evaluation (completely wrong, wrong, right, completely right) to indicate their level of agreement with the questions asked in the inventory. The scale also includes reverse questions (2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10).^[18] As a result of the analysis, the Cronbach α coefficient of the scale was found to be 0.83.

2.2.2. Mental Training Inventory in Sport (MTS)

The Turkish adaptation of the inventory developed,^[19] which aims to measure the mental skills and mental techniques used in mental training practices in the sports environment, was conducted.^[19] This inventory, which was developed specifically for athletes, consists of 5 subdimensions and a total of 20 items: Mental Basic Skills (MBS) (4 items) (α = 0.60), Mental Performance Skills (MP) (6 items) (α = 0.78), Interpersonal Skills (IS) (4 items) (α = 0.72), Talking to Self (3 items) (α = 0.85), Mental Reenactment (MR) (3 items) (α = 0.70). The inventory has a 5-point Likert-type structure and is scored as (1) “Strongly Disagree” and (5) “Strongly Agree.” The lowest score that can be obtained from the inventory is 20, and the highest score is 100. For this study, the Cronbach Alpha coefficient for the inventory as a whole was determined as (α = 0.96) for Mental Basic Skills (α = 0.85), Mental Performance Skills (α = 0.89), Interpersonal Skills (α = 0.84), Self-Talk (α = 0.87), Mental Reenactment (3 items) (α = 0.85).

2.2.3. Emotional Intelligence Scale in Sport (EI)

The Emotional Intelligence Inventory, the Turkish version of which was validated and made usable for Turkish researchers,^[20] was developed to measure the emotional intelligence abilities of athletes. The inventory was adapted for athletes as 19 items and 5 dimensions^[21] based on the emotional intelligence scale developed.^[22] The subdimensions of this inventory adapted for athletes consist of 5 subdimensions; evaluation of others’ emotions (5 items), evaluation of own emotions (3 items), regulation of emotions (RE) (2 items), social skills (3 items), and use of emotions (UE) (6 items). Consisting of 19 items and 5 subdimensions, the emotional intelligence inventory in sport has Cronbach alpha values of the scale subdimensions ranging between 0.61 and 0.85. It is seen that the general internal consistency coefficient of the scale is as high as 0.91.

2.3. Statistical analysis

All data collected from the athletes were meticulously examined, and the data with erroneous and outlier values were removed from the data collected from 260 athletes, and analyses were made on 242 data. Descriptive statistics on whether the total and sub-factor scores of the scales were normally distributed were examined, and based on the kurtosis and skewness coefficients, it was determined that all subcategories of all independent variables were not normally distributed in the scale’s total score and sub-factor scores. Therefore, nonparametric tests were used in all analyses. In this context, in the statistical analyses in the study, the MANCOVA test was used for the analysis of Mental Training in Sport Total (MTST), MES, and EI scores and subdimensions according to the age variable. Kruskal-Wallis H test was performed to examine the changes in the MTST, MES, scores, and subdimensions of the participants according to the sportive branch. Spearman correlation analysis was used to determine the correlation between the parameters. Correlation analysis was performed using the RStudio (Posit PBC, Boston, USA) program. The significance level was determined as 0.05.

3. Results

Table 2 shows the mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis values of the participants’ MIST, MES-Total, EI-Total scores and subdimensions. According to this, it was determined that most of the data obtained from the participants were not normally distributed.

Table 2.

Mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis values of baseline values by gender.

Parameters	Gender	N	Mean ± SD	Kurtosis	Skewness
MBS	Male	147	16.63 ± 2.85	11.12	‐2.46
	Female	95	16.24 ± 2.78	6.54	‐1.78
MP	Male	147	22.73 ± 4.24	3.49	‐1.43
	Female	95	20.76 ± 3.86	7.92	‐2.10
IS	Male	147	16.91 ± 2.67	8.27	‐2.09
	Female	95	17.26 ± 2.51	20.98	‐3.72
TS	Male	147	11.91 ± 2.51	2.28	‐1.39
	Female	95	12.14 ± 1.95	8.79	‐2.17
MR	Male	147	12.51 ± 2.23	4.73	‐1.63
	Female	95	12.38 ± 1.94	9.90	‐2.22
MITST	Male	147	80.72 ± 11.81	11.12	‐2.49
	Female	95	78.52 ± 12.40	28.69	‐4.69
MES-Trust	Male	147	19.17 ± 2.56	‐0.69	0.32
	Female	95	16.94 ± 3.01	8.26	‐1.81
MES-Continuity	Male	147	13.60 ± 1.81	‐0.29	‐0.46
	Female	95	12.54 ± 2.11	7.53	‐1.92
MES-Control	Male	147	9.25 ± 2.93	‐0.35	0.41
	Female	95	7.94 ± 2.11	‐0.39	0.19
MES-Total	Male	147	42.03 ± 5.52	‐0.29	0.42
	Female	95	37.28 ± 6.77	14.29	‐2.86
EI-EEO	Male	147	19.22 ± 2.87	1.89	‐0.59
	Female	95	18.88 ± 3.02	15.51	‐2.77
EI-RO	Male	147	7.69 ± 1.62	1.56	‐0.86
	Female	95	7.56 ± 1.34	‐0.51	‐0.66
EI-SS	Male	147	11.64 ± 1.58	0.90	‐0.03
	Female	95	11.52 ± 1.79	9.78	‐2.01
EI-UE	Male	147	20.55 ± 3.06	5.03	‐1.28
	Female	95	19.72 ± 4.11	5.66	‐2.00
EI-EYOE	Male	147	11.90 ± 1.86	3.03	‐1.10
	Female	95	11.68 ± 2.18	5.17	‐1.84
EI-Total	Male	147	71.01 ± 7.99	3.34	‐0.64
	Female	95	69.10 ± 11.99	18.27	‐3.69

EEO = evaluating the emotions of others, EI = emotional intelligence, EYOE = evaluating your own emotions, IS = interpersonal skill, MBS = mental basic skill, MES = mental endurance in sport, MP = mental performance, MR = mental reenactment, MTST = mental training in sport total, RE = regulating emotions, SD = standard deviation, SS = social skills, TS = talking to self, UE = use of emotions.

Figure 1 shows the results of the correlation analysis between participants’ MTS, MES, EI, and their subdimensions. Accordingly, there was a high positive correlation between the MTST score and MES-Total score (R = 0.48, P < .001) and EI-Total score (R = 0.48, P < .001), and between EI-Total and MES-Total score (R = 0.57, P < .001).

Figure 1.

Comparison of MTS and its subdimensions according to the branch of the participants. MTS = Sport Mental Training Inventory.

Table 3 shows the results of MANCOVA analyses of MTST, MES, EI, and their subdimensions according to the age variable of the participants. According to this, participants’ MP [F_{(2, 159)} = 4.204, ε²=0.05, P = .017, (TUKEY: 18–28 age < 26–33 age; Δ = −2.33, P = .012)], MES-Control [F_{(2, 159)} = 2.064, ε²=0.04, P = .038, (TUKEY: 18–25 age < 26–33 age; Δ = −1.36, P = .029)], EI-RE [F_{(2, 159)} = 3.074, ε²=0.03, P = .049, (TUKEY: 18–28 age < 26–33 age; Δ = −0.73, P = .038)], EI-UE [F_{(2, 159)} = 4.869, ε²=0.05, P = .009, (TUKEY: 18–28 age < 26–33 age; Δ = −1.74, P = .023)].

Table 3.

MANCOVA analysis results of MTST, MES, and EI results and subdimensions according to the participants’ age variable.

Parameters	Mean square	F	ε²	P
MBS	12.70	1.597	0.01	.206
MP	72.06	4.204	0.05	.017
IS	19.22	2.859	0.03	.060
TS	0.16	0.029	0.00	.972
MR	1.92	0.416	0.00	.660
MTST	206.0	1.437	0.01	.241
MES-Trust	7.69	0.918	0.01	.401
MES-Continuity	5.81	1.515	0.01	.223
MES-Control	24.74	3.330	0.04	.038
MES	81.15	2.064	0.02	.130
EI-EEO	7.89	0.926	0.01	.398
EI-RE	7.08	3.074	0.03	.049
EI-SS	4.24	1.576	0.01	.210
EI-UE	56.64	4.869	0.05	.009
EI-EYOE	5.33	1.387	0.01	.253
EI-Total	209.49	2.404	0.02	.094

EEO = evaluating the emotions of others, EI = emotional intelligence, EYOE = evaluating your own emotions, IS = interpersonal skill, MBS = mental basic skill, MES = mental endurance in sport, MP = mental performance, MR = mental reenactment, MTST = mental training in sport total, RE = regulating emotions, SS = social skills, TS = talking to self, UE = use of emotions, ηp² = effect size of parameter, P < .05.

In Table 4, the subdimensions of elite subsets MTST, MES, and EI results were analyzed. According to the Kruskal Wallis H test results of the participants, MP (Chi-Square = 36.46, P = .001; highest = bocce, weightlifting, lowest = fencing), MR (Chi-Square = 32. 78, P = .002; highest = taekwondo, lowest = archery), MTST (Chi-Square = 30.08, P = .005; highest = bocce, lowest = fencing, archery), MES-Trust (Chi-Square = 33.39, p=. 001; highest = military pentathlon, lowest = taekwondo), MES-Continuity (Chi-Square = 37.69, P < .001; highest = military = pentathlon, lowest = karate), MES-Control (Chi-Square = 31.70, p=. 003; highest = weightlifting, lowest = taekwondo), MES (Chi-Square = 47.45, P < .001; highest = orienteering, lowest = taekwondo), and EI-EYOE (Chi-Square = 27.79, P = .010; highest = bocce, lowest = bodybuilding) had significant results.

Table 4.

Comparison of MTST, MES, and EI results according to sports branches.

Parameters	Chi-Square	P
MBS	17.81	.165
MP	36.46	.001
IS	20.77	.078
TS	16.12	.242
MR	32.78	.002
MTST	30.08	.005
MES-Trust	33.39	.001
MES-Continuity	37.69	<.001
MES-Control	31.70	.003
MES	47.45	<.001
EI-EOO	18.48	.140
EI-RE	17.10	.195
EI-SS	17.67	.170
EI-UE	15.13	.299
EI-EYOE	27.79	.010
EI-Total	15.57	.273

EEO = evaluating the emotions of others, EI = emotional intelligence, EYOE = evaluating your own emotions, IS = interpersonal skill, MBS = mental basic skill, MES = mental endurance in sport, MP = mental performance, MR = mental reenactment, MTST = mental training in sport total, RE = regulating emotions, SS = social skills, TS = talking to self, UE = use of emotions, P < .05.

4. Discussion

In this study, the statistical analysis of mental endurance, mental training, and affective intelligence levels of elite athletes was conducted according to gender, age, and sports branches. When the statistical results obtained from the MTS inventory were analyzed in our research.

When the age variable was analyzed by gender, the results showed that male athletes in the 26 to 33 age group scored higher overall for MTS, MBS, MP, and IS sub-factors than did their 34+ age group counterparts. On the other hand, the analysis did not show any noteworthy age-related disparities among female athletes. Concluded that the gender and age variables of the athletes did not show a significant difference in the total score and subdimensions of the mental training inventory.^[23] However, found that there was a statistically significant difference in the mental training scores of athletes according to age variables.^[24]

The gender-specific analysis of the sport age variable revealed that female athletes who were 21 years of age or older had higher overall scores in the MTST, MBS, and IS sub-factors than female athletes who were between the ages of 11 and 20. In contrast, male athletes did not exhibit any significant differences in the sport age variable. It can be said that elite athletes set more realistic goals through mental training,^[25] athletes need to be supported professionally,^[26] they think healthier as their sports age increases and they need mental training regardless of gender.

The branch variables of wrestling, archery, boxing, table tennis, and archery in the Talking to Yourself sub-factor, and gymnastics and wrestling in the MR sub-factor differed with high scores compared to other branches in female athletes; there was no difference in the branch variable of male athletes. These findings came from the examination of the branch variable based on gender. It is stated that individual athletes use mental training methods more effectively than team athletes,^[27] play a more effective role in improving sports performance,^[3] and mentally healthy athletes are more efficient in organizing psychological skills and strategies.^[8]

Examining the age variable by gender, it was found that male athletes between the ages of 26 and 33 differed from female athletes between the ages of 18 and 25 in terms of the overall score of MES and the sub-factors of Confidence, Continuity, and Control, all of which had higher scores. Mental endurance is defined as having psychological skills that enable one to remain more determined, focused, confident, and in control under pressure compared to the opponent,^[28] and exhibiting a tough attitude with the ability to cope with negativities, difficulties, and pressures is considered as one of the important components of mental endurance in sport.^[29] It is suggested that mental endurance is primarily related to the ability to cope with challenging conditions.^[30] The fact that mental endurance is considered important for athletes has led researchers to conduct studies to improve mental endurance. It is stated that psychological aspects of athlete health and performance have received increasing attention in the last 2 decades and most of this research is related to athletes’ mental health and the concept of mental resilience.^[31] In line with the results of the study, concluded that there is a significant relationship between mental endurance and gender, age, and sports experience, but the athlete’s level of achievement and the type of sport in which the athlete participates are not significantly related to mental endurance.^[32] According to this result, they concluded that men have significantly higher mental endurance than women and that increasing age and years of experience have a significant effect on total mental endurance. In addition, the studies conducted contain generally similar results to our study.^[33] There is evidence that gender and match experience have an impact on athletes’ mental endurance; in this context, male athletes appear to be stronger in coping with challenges in competition compared to female athletes. Also, more experienced athletes were found to have a more robust mental endurance. However, in general, mental endurance seems to decrease with increasing age. The results suggest that the mental endurance of martial arts athletes is influenced by gender and match experience.

Upon analyzing the sport age variable based on gender, it was found that male athletes with a sport age between 11 and 20 years had a different total score on the Confidence sub-factor of the MES scale than male athletes with a sport age between 0 and 10 years and 21 years and above; similarly, female athletes with a sport age between 11 and 20 years had higher scores on the Confidence sub-factor than athletes with a sport age between 0 and 10 years and 21 years and above. It is stated that most of the athletes have a high level of mental endurance and most of these athletes are men between the ages of 19 and 22 with national match experience.^[33] Examined the effect of mental endurance training and psychological skills training on the development of mental endurance of athletes and concluded that those who received mental endurance and psychological skills training improved their mental endurance compared to those who did not.^[31] Concluded that mental endurance and resilience are positively related but negatively related to stress; in addition, both resilience and mental endurance significantly predict stress.^[25] Examined how mental endurance affects season outcomes in collegiate athletes and concluded that athletes with higher preseason mental endurance used more emotion regulation strategies, while postseason perceived stress decreased, mental health assessments were better, and group cohesion scores were higher.^[34] Examining the relationship between dispositional awareness, psychological skills, and mental endurance in multi-sport populations, found a positive correlation between dispositional awareness and all domains of psychological skills and mental endurance.^[35] Another study found that mental endurance is important for sustaining performance in positive situations^[4,30] and is associated with the ability to cope with adversity.^[30] It suggests that the development of mental endurance is particularly accelerated during young adulthood and that this period offers an ideal opportunity for the development of lasting mental endurance and self-confidence in athletes. With this research, we further examined why athletes in this age range have higher confidence levels in the future and contributed to the mental development of athletes by revealing the effects on the athlete’s performance in the long term in different sports.

The branch variable was examined based on gender, and the results showed that the branches for Bodybuilding, Military Pentathlon, and Orienteering in the total dimension of the scale differed with high scores compared to other branches; for female athletes, the branches for Boxing and Table Tennis were in the Confidence sub-factor; and for male athletes, the branches for Orienteering and Military Pentathlon were in the Continuity sub-factor. When the results of mental endurance studies on athletes are examined in general, it is seen that athletes have higher scores in mental endurance than nonathletes,^[36] individual athletes show more mental endurance than team athletes,^[32,37–39] and that people who reach the recommended level of physical activity also show relatively high mental endurance.^[38]

Following a gender-specific analysis of the age variable, it was found that male athletes between the ages of 26 and 33 scored higher than female athletes between the ages of 18 and 25 in both the overall score of EI and the sub-factors of UE, social skills, and RE. In line with the research results obtained from male elite athletes, also found a correlation between EI and the age of athletes in their study. There are similar studies in the literature that concluded that age has a significant positive relationship with emotional intelligence in support of the research results.^[36,40,41]

Following a gender-specific analysis of the sport age variable, it was found that male athletes between the ages of 11 and 20 had higher Use of Emotions subdimension scores on the EI scale than did male athletes between the ages of 0 and 10 and 21 and older. The sport age variable for female athletes did not differ. To summarize the general results related to the emotional intelligence of elite athletes, it can be stated that while older male athletes have higher emotional intelligence, age is not a factor in the emotional intelligence of female athletes; in general, sports age and doing sports in different branches are not a factor in emotional intelligence. The mental state of the athlete is an important issue that affects the performance in the relevant sport and is one of the most frequently encountered mental and psychological problems in the process of maintaining sports performance.^[12,42]

Examining the branch variable according to gender, it was found that female athletes’ branch variable was the same, but male athletes’ military pentathlon and gymnastics branches differed in the evaluation of others’ emotions sub-factor, scoring higher than other branches. Regarding the branch variable, the total score of the scale indicated no significant difference; however, male athletes with high scores in the military pentathlon and gymnastics branches differed in their evaluation of their own emotions sub-factor when compared to other branches; the branch variable for female athletes did not differ. In a similar study, it was concluded that the highest level of emotional intelligence was found in male athletes interested in judo, and the emotional intelligence levels of female athletes interested in shooting were higher than athletes interested in athletics and gymnastics.^[41] However, there are also research results that emotional intelligence levels do not differ significantly according to the type of sports branch of interest.^[36] When the studies on emotional intelligence in sports are examined, it is seen that emotional intelligence affects sports performance satisfaction, athletes with high emotional intelligence handle stressful situations as less stressful,^[36] and emotional intelligence trait is associated with pleasant emotions such as more calmness and happiness, less anger, confusion, depression, fatigue and less anger,^[43] there is a positive relationship between athletes’ emotional intelligence traits and the quality of their decisions,^[44] there is a relationship between athletes’ emotional intelligence and motivation and emotional intelligence significantly predicts athletes’ motivation for success.^[40]

4.1. Limitation

The main limitations of the study are that team athletes and amateur athletes were excluded from the sample, which limited the generalizability of the findings to the entire athlete population, and that the research sample was limited to athletes affiliated with the Olympic Preparation Centre, which may have limited the scope of inferences for different branches by leading to a low number of participants in some branches. Since this study was a cross-sectional study, it was conducted with the current mood of the participants. It is thought that longer cohort studies are also needed. In addition, the data were not normally distributed due to the imbalance in the number of participants between the branches in the study. Therefore, the results were analyzed with nonparametric tests. There is a need for more studies, including more participants. In addition, this study was conducted only with Turkish elite athletes, and in order to make international evaluations, studies with the participation of different countries are also needed.

4.2. Recommendation for future research

It is recommended that both amateur and team athletes be included in future research to improve the findings’ generalizability and application. A more comprehensive understanding of the mental and emotional dynamics unique to different sport types may be obtained by comparing solo and team players. To investigate how mental endurance, emotional intelligence, and mental training processes evolve over time and their long-term consequences on performance, longitudinal research approaches are also advised. A greater comprehension of athletes’ individual experiences, perceptions, and the meanings they attach to these psychological notions can be achieved through the use of qualitative research methods. Finally, in order to improve statistical power and the validity of the findings, it would be advantageous to work with bigger and more varied sample groups in further research. The study’s conclusions can also serve as a fundamental guide for assessing and creating mental and emotional training plans for professional athletes.

5. Conclusions

Therefore, it was shown that there was a strong positive correlation between mental endurance and emotional intelligence as well as between mental training and emotional intelligence when the mental endurance, mental training, and emotional intelligence levels of Elite Individual Athletes were evaluated. It can be said that mental stamina and emotional intelligence, which play an important role in the success of athletes, should be developed. This situation can have a positive effect on the mental and emotional processes of athletes. Future studies should test the validity of these relationships in different sports and in different age groups and experimentally examine the effects of emotional intelligence interventions on mental endurance. Furthermore, a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of the relationship between emotional intelligence and mental training may contribute to the development of more effective intervention strategies in the field of sport psychology. Accordingly, interdisciplinary approaches should be adopted to optimize the psychological characteristics of athletes and training programs should be designed to increase the interaction between mental endurance and emotional intelligence.

5.1. Practical recommendation

The findings of this study show that mental training, mental endurance and emotional intelligence are complementary elements in the performance development of elite individual athletes. In this context, the following practical suggestions are recommended to be taken into consideration by coaches, sports psychologists, and athletes:

• Mental training programs should support not only the technical and physical development of the athlete but also emotional and cognitive processes.

• Developing emotional intelligence components can create awareness by improving athletes’ ability to recognize their own emotions and their relationships with teammates, coaches, and opponents.

• Mental endurance training can improve decision-making under pressure, emotional control, and fighting power.

• Taking individual differences into account can ensure that different approaches are adopted mentally and emotionally.

• Raising the awareness of educators and coaches can be provided by implementing an in-service training program module for sports and athlete psychology in both groups and renewing their knowledge.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2025R145) Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, for funding this study.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: Bekir Çar, Safaa M. Elkholi.

Data curation: Ahmet Kurtoglu, Özgür Eken, Turan Baskonus, Safaa M. Elkholi.

Formal analysis: Ahmet Kurtoglu, Özgür Eken, Turan Baskonus, Safaa M. Elkholi.

Funding acquisition: Safaa M. Elkholi.

Investigation: Bekir Çar, Ahmet Kurtoglu, Özgür Eken, Turan Baskonus, Safaa M. Elkholi.

Methodology: Bekir Çar, Ahmet Kurtoglu, Safaa M. Elkholi.

Project administration: Safaa M. Elkholi.

Resources: Bekir Çar, Ahmet Kurtoglu.

Software: Ahmet Kurtoglu.

Supervision: Bekir Çar.

Validation: Bekir Çar, Ahmet Kurtoglu, Safaa M. Elkholi.

Visualization: Bekir Çar, Turan Baskonus.

Writing – original draft: Bekir Çar, Ahmet Kurtoglu, Özgür Eken, Turan Baskonus, Safaa M. Elkholi.

Writing – review & editing: Bekir Çar, Ahmet Kurtoglu, Özgür Eken, Turan Baskonus, Safaa M. Elkholi.