Table 3.
Cost (mean and SD) in CAD dollar by characteristics of patients.
| Characteristic | Healthcare costs (n = 1372) | Productivity costs (n = 928) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | Mean (SD) | P-valuea | n | Mean (SD) | P-valuea | |
| Sociodemographic factors | ||||||
| Age | < 0.001 | 0.004 | ||||
| 16–34 | 582 | 12,566 (41,043) | 431 | 3,634 (7,638) | ||
| 35–64 | 589 | 22,312 (54,244) | 497 | 5,045 (8,349) | ||
| ≥ 65 | 201 | 29,833 (58,038) | - | - | ||
| Sex | 0.048 | < 0.001 | ||||
| Male | 736 | 20,876 (47,109) | 546 | 3,659 (7,575) | ||
| Female | 636 | 17,432 (53,262) | 382 | 5,433 (8,594) | ||
| Employment status | < 0.001 | |||||
| Employed | 915 | 16,623 (45,370) | - | - | ||
| School | 147 | 10,345 (38,586) | - | - | ||
| Retired | 188 | 28,065 (59,696) | - | - | ||
| Others | 90 | 35,305 (73,165) | - | - | ||
| Living situation | 0.025 | 0.509 | ||||
| Alone | 334 | 23,704 (47,979) | 195 | 4,924 (8,505) | ||
| With others | 1031 | 17,824 (50,805) | 730 | 4,265 (7,940) | ||
| Education level | < 0.001 | 0.005 | ||||
| Less than high school | 89 | 38,126 (58,601) | 34 | 4,266 (7,719) | ||
| High school and vocational | 528 | 22,545 (56,707) | 336 | 3,927 (8,330) | ||
| University | 751 | 14,771 (42,983) | 556 | 4,691 (7,913) | ||
| Ethnicity | < 0.001 | 0.130 | ||||
| Caucasian | 706 | 24,092 (55,363) | 458 | 4,868 (8,347) | ||
| Asian | 328 | 10,832 (30,442) | 223 | 3,649 (6,114) | ||
| Others | 335 | 17,549 (52,801) | 243 | 4,189 (9,004) | ||
| Years lived in Canada | < 0.001 | 0.050 | ||||
| > 10 years | 1176 | 20,988 (53,237) | 803 | 4,605 (8,323) | ||
| ≤ 10 years | 193 | 9,074 (20,707) | 122 | 3,077 (5,936) | ||
| Psychological and medical factors | ||||||
| Somatic symptoms severity (PHQ-15) | 0.299 | 0.540 | ||||
| < 15 | 1310 | 18,616 (49,839) | 890 | 4,431 (8,138) | ||
| ≥ 15 | 27 | 47,634 (116,766) | 13 | 5,116 (7,222) | ||
| Pain catastrophizing | 0.598 | 0.578 | ||||
| < 30 | 1280 | 17,964 (46,511) | 880 | 4,362 (8,025) | ||
| ≥ 30 | 61 | 38,910 (93,221) | 33 | 5,900 (9,352) | ||
| Psychological distress (PHQ-4) | 0.081 | 0.021 | ||||
| < 9 | 1335 | 18,757 (48,880) | 911 | 4,266 (7,475) | ||
| ≥ 9 | 35 | 32,494 (73,160) | 16 | 10,209 (23,591) | ||
| Health-related quality of life (SF-12) | 0.020 | < 0.001 | ||||
| < 100 | 272 | 28,054 (61,106) | 142 | 8,352 (12,349) | ||
| ≥ 100 | 1087 | 16,678 (45,854) | 779 | 3,659 (6,754) | ||
| Pre-injury comorbidities number | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||||
| 0 | 635 | 13,091 (34,819) | 506 | 3,424 (6,474) | ||
| 1 | 409 | 19,072 (52,688) | 283 | 4,870 (9,898) | ||
| ≥ 2 | 328 | 31,520 (66,862) | 139 | 6,925 (8,468) | ||
| Trauma-related factors | ||||||
| ED visited | < 0.001 | 0.786 | ||||
| VGH (Vancouver) | 1120 | 18,548 (50,891) | 765 | 4,129 (7,399) | ||
| RCH (New Westminster) | 212 | 24,829 (49,516) | 137 | 5,372 (10,316) | ||
| KGH (Kelowna) | 40 | 10,362 (16,655) | 26 | 6,879 (11,794) | ||
| Crash time (Season) | < 0.001 | 0.552 | ||||
| Spring | 241 | 20,884 (59,154) | 168 | 4,550 (9,705) | ||
| Summer | 258 | 24,056 (52,462) | 169 | 5,165 (9,164) | ||
| Fall | 444 | 19,220 (52,865) | 302 | 4,151 (7,290) | ||
| Winter | 429 | 15,588 (38,640) | 289 | 4,092 (7,006) | ||
| Road user type | 0.001 | 0.863 | ||||
| Driver | 629 | 16,363 (46,285) | 455 | 4,497 (9,091) | ||
| Passenger | 203 | 18,810 (52,679) | 125 | 4,199 (6,821) | ||
| Motorcyclist | 108 | 24,163 (47,771) | 93 | 5,150 (8,820) | ||
| Pedestrian | 265 | 27,369 (60,460) | 132 | 3,931 (6,079) | ||
| Cyclist | 167 | 14,840 (42,000) | 123 | 4,102 (6,227) | ||
| ISS | < 0.001 | 0.012 | ||||
| ≤ 3 | 770 | 5,952 (14,378) | 554 | 3,644 (6,492) | ||
| 4–8 | 220 | 7,679 (15,424) | 151 | 4,604 (9,818) | ||
| 9–15 | 193 | 28,432 (38,607) | 109 | 6,499 (11,284) | ||
| ≥ 16 | 188 | 78,148 (106,096) | 113 | 5,764 (8,087) | ||
| GCS | < 0.001 | 0.426 | ||||
| 3–8 | 22 | 134,714 (85,053) | 14 | 2,905 (3,343) | ||
| 9–13 | 23 | 113,279 (150,742) | 17 | 1,441 (2,411) | ||
| ≥ 14 | 1233 | 16,267 (42,087) | 820 | 4,566 (8,288) | ||
| Head injury | 0.020 | 0.374 | ||||
| Yes | 521 | 22,678 (60,784) | 349 | 4,791 (8,334) | ||
| No | 851 | 17,199 (42,088) | 579 | 4,148 (7,877) | ||
| Neck injury | < 0.001 | 0.503 | ||||
| Yes | 517 | 12,469 (36,118) | 370 | 4,729 (8,014) | ||
| No | 855 | 23,394 (56,478) | 558 | 4,164 (8,087) | ||
| Torso injury | < 0.001 | 0.325 | ||||
| Yes | 534 | 31,416 (68,046) | 335 | 4,827 (7,932) | ||
| No | 838 | 11,546 (31,678) | 593 | 4,142 (8,117) | ||
| Spine/back injury | 0.004 | 0.064 | ||||
| Yes | 471 | 22,564 (64,396) | 326 | 5,133 (8,783) | ||
| No | 901 | 17,563 (40,549) | 602 | 3,987 (7,605) | ||
| Upper extremity injury | 0.173 | 0.005 | ||||
| Yes | 699 | 19,824 (53,985) | 475 | 5,091 (9,264) | ||
| No | 673 | 18,714 (45,674) | 453 | 3,654 (6,477) | ||
| Lower extremity injury | < 0.001 | 0.510 | ||||
| Yes | 664 | 24,497 (60,185) | 448 | 4,532 (7,830) | ||
| No | 708 | 14,387 (37,610) | 480 | 4,256 (8,262) | ||
SD: standard deviation; PHQ-15: Patient Health Questionnaire-15; PHQ-4: Patient Health Questionnaire-4; SF-12: Short Form 12 survey; VGH: Vancouver General Hospital; RCH: Royal Columbian Hospital; KGH: Kelowna General Hospital; ED: emergency department; ISS: injury severity score; GCS: Glasgow Coma Scale. a univariate model.