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. 2025 May 28;13:571. doi: 10.1186/s40359-025-02898-4

Global prevalence of imposter syndrome in health service providers: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Nader Salari 1, Seyed Hamidreza Hashemian 2, Amin Hosseinian-Far 3, Amirreza Fallahi 2, Pegah Heidarian 2, Shabnam Rasoulpoor 4, Masoud Mohammadi 5,✉
PMCID: PMC12117965  PMID: 40437646

Abstract

Background

Imposterism, also known as imposter syndrome or imposter phenomenon, is an emerging phenomenon that has attracted much attention in recent years. Given that this phenomenon is common among high-achieving individuals and its identification often overlaps with symptoms of anxiety, depression, stress, and burnout, the aim of this study is to determine the global prevalence of imposter syndrome and its associated factors.

Methods

For this study, PubMed, Embase, ScienceDirect Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases were systematically searched, and all relevant studies were transferred to EndNote (v.8) and reviewed. Data analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (v.2) software; a random effects model was adopted for analysis, and the I2 index was used to examine the heterogeneity of studies.

Results

In a review of 30 studies with a sample size of 11,483 people, the prevalence of imposter syndrome was 62% (95% CI: 52.6–70.6) based on meta-analysis and the random effects method. In examining the factors affecting the heterogeneity of studies and the effect of sample size on this heterogeneity, it was found that with increasing sample size, the prevalence of imposter syndrome decreases (p < 0.05), and with increasing years of studies, the prevalence of imposter syndrome increases (p < 0.05). Additionally, in this study, self-esteem, anxiety, depression, stress, and burnout were identified as the most important factors associated with imposter syndrome.

Conclusion

Given the relatively high prevalence of imposter syndrome, which is a serious psychological challenge and can negatively affect the mental health and performance of individuals, the results of this study provide useful information for designing appropriate policies and interventions to develop effective pertinent solutions.

Keywords: Imposter, Imposter Syndrome, Imposter phenomenon, Prevalence, Meta-analysis

Background

Individuals experience anxiety, self-doubt, and feelings of alienation in situations where their abilities, performance, and competence are constantly evaluated. This sense of alienation, or ‘fraud’, is what gives rise to imposter syndrome (IS). IS is characterized by a persistent inability to attribute one’s achievements to personal merit, instead attributing successes to luck or other external factors [1, 2]. From the perspective of Bandura’s self-efficacy theory, IS can profoundly affect one’s self-confidence and potential for success [3–5]. Since low self-efficacy can affect a wide range of life outcomes, from academic success to mental health, it is imperative to explore the complexities of IS further [6].

Contrary to earlier beliefs that IS was limited to specific groups (such as women), recent research suggests that the phenomenon is pervasive across genders, cultures, and professional backgrounds [7, 8], particularly among those working in the medical field, such as medical students, medical residents, and physicians [9–12]. A nationwide survey of 3,000 physicians in the United States conducted between 2020 and 2021 found that 1 in 4 physicians experienced frequent or severe symptoms of IS [13]. In fact, physicians have an 80% higher relative risk of experiencing IS symptoms than other professions [13]. In addition, the syndrome is also relatively prevalent among various other population groups, including computer science students, university librarians, and pre-service teachers [14–16].

The impact of occupations and their status on imposter syndrome has been well documented in the healthcare profession, with approximately 30% of medical students and residents reported to be identified as imposters, with the report being more gender specific among females and international medical graduates [14]. Imposter syndrome manifests itself at the beginning of new jobs and projects. Even experienced doctors are not immune and can suffer from this syndrome despite receiving positive feedback from peers and patients [14].

IS, although not recognized as a mental illness in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), is an experience that significantly impacts an individual’s mental health and can extend its effects to physical and occupational impairments [17]. Individuals suffering from IS are less likely to speak up or volunteer answers and information compared to their peers who are not affected by the syndrome. These characteristics can have serious implications for the learning process in medical education. Students exhibiting high IS characteristics often avoid challenges and reject various learning opportunities for fear of making mistakes and exposing their perceived inadequacies. This, in turn, leads to overall negative outcomes in healthcare delivery [9–16].

IS has been found to be significantly associated with indicators of burnout [18–20]. People who suffer from this syndrome often adopt long-term workaholism behaviors to achieve unrealistic goals, leading to a vicious cycle of blame, fatigue, and burnout [21], that impairs and exacerbates individuals’ performance in work and academic situations. Furthermore, studies have shown that IS is associated with certain poor psychological functioning, such as low self-esteem, anxiety disorders, and psychological distress [22]. People who suffer from IS often struggle with feelings of helplessness and self-doubt, which can lead to significant mental health challenges. These concerning results highlight the fact that recognizing such a psychological experience and increasing awareness about it can help individuals in various fields, including healthcare, to overcome the difficulties of the early stages of their careers. Therefore, considering the varying values reported in different studies with different populations, it is necessary to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the global prevalence and factors associated with IS in the general population and to provide a consolidated value in this field. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the global prevalence of imposter syndrome (IS) and related factors through a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Methods

The present study is a systematic review and meta-analysis conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [23]. To select relevant studies, a systematic search was conducted on 20 th of December 2024, across the international databases of PubMed, Embase, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and the Google Scholar search engine. The keywords “prevalence”, “epidemiology”, “consequence”, “outcome”, “Imposter phenomenon”, “Imposter Syndrome”, and “Imposter”, along with the ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ operators, were used for the search. To ensure comprehensiveness and access to the maximum number of relevant studies, no restrictions were applied to the publication year. Additionally, a manual search of the relevant studies was conducted by examining the reference list of the identified articles. In this study, in order to examine gray literature, a general search was conducted on the Google search engine, as well as a review of the sources of articles obtained in the general review, and emails to authors who have worked in this field.

Our study aimed to answer the following research question “What is the global prevalence of imposter syndrome in society?” Keywords were extracted from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) database. PICO was defined in this study as follows: population (P) were: total health service providers, intervention (I): Without intervention, Comparison (C): Comparison with people without imposter syndrome and outcome (O) were: prevalence of imposter syndrome.

Inclusion criteria

The following criteria were considered for inclusion of studies:

  1. Original research studies,

  2. Cross-sectional studies,

  3. Studies for which the full text was available,

  4. Studies published in English, and

  5. Studies that provided sufficient data (i.e., prevalence of imposter syndrome).

Exclusion criteria

Criteria that led to exclusion of studies are listed below:

  1. Studies that were not relevant to the focus and context of this research work,

  2. Studies published in languages other than English,

  3. Animal studies,

  4. Reviews of any sort,

  5. Interventional studies, and

  6. Case reports, and case series.

  7. Studies that receive a low or poor score in the quality assessment (scoring below 16).

Study selection

During the study selection stage, all studies were imported into EndNote (v.8) software, and duplicate articles from different databases were omitted. In the next stage, the titles and abstracts of the remaining studies were independently reviewed by two researchers, and studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded. Following this, each researcher reviewed the full texts of the studies and removed any irrelevant studies based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. In cases of disagreement between the two researchers, the final review and decision were assigned to a third researcher to reach to reach a consensus. To prevent bias, the authors’ information and the characteristics of the journals were concealed from the researchers.

Quality evaluation

In the quality evaluation phase, the STROBE checklist was utilized, a suitable tool for evaluating the quality of observational studies [24, 25]. This checklist includes 6 sections that assess the title, abstract, introduction, methodology, results, and discussion, along with 32 subscales. Considering that the tool’s scores range from 0 to 32, a cutoff point of 16 was established. Studies scoring below 16 were excluded, while those scoring 16 or above were deemed as high-quality articles.

Data extraction

To extract relevant data, a separate checklist was created with fields including author’s name, year of publication, study location, study type, number of participants, age range of subjects, gender, prevalence of imposter syndrome (IS), and the tool used to measure the imposter phenomenon. Data extraction was carried out separately by two researchers to ensure accuracy.

Statistical analysis

The Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (v.2) was used for analysis. Heterogeneity across studies was assessed using the I2 index, publication bias was evaluated with the Funnel plot test, and the Begg and Mazumdar correlation test was employed to assess possible publication bias in the studies.

Results

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, evidence within studies that had assessed the global prevalence of imposter syndrome (IS) in the general population was examined according to the PRISMA guidelines. Initially, 520 potentially relevant studies were identified through the search of databases and imported into EndNote software. After removing duplicates, 205 studies were excluded, leaving 315 studies. Subsequently, 241 irrelevant studies were excluded based on title and abstract review. The full text of the remaining studies was then assessed, leading to the exclusion of 44 studies based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria (including 4 studies excluded during the quality assessment stage), leaving 30 studies. These processes are presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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PRISMA flow diagram for identifying relevant studies

General characteristics of the studies

The studies included in the analysis were published between 2004 and 2024. The highest prevalence of imposter syndrome (IS) was found in the study by Zoia et al., with a prevalence rate of 94% [26]. The majority of the studies included in this study were conducted in the United States (12 studies) and all of the studies were cross-sectional (Table 1).

Table 1.

Summary of characteristics of included studies of prevalence of imposter syndrome

Instrument for single child status population prevalence of IS Sample Size(n) Location year Author
CIPS1 Medical Students 52.2 276 Oman 2023 Al Lawati et al. [27]
CIPS Otolaryngologists 27.5 80 Saudi Arabia 2024 Alrasheed et al. [28]
CIPS Medical Students 89.5 399 United Arab Emirates 2020 Alzufari et al. [29]
CIPS Physical Therapists 51.2 514 USA 2024 Anderson et al. [30]
CIPS Dental Students 84.1 162 Saudi Arabia 2023 Awinashe et al. [31]
CIPS General Surgery Residents 76 144 USA 2021 Bhama et al. [32]
CIPS Family Medicine 43 430 USA 2023 Carvajal et al. [33]
CIPS Medical Students 41.81 165 Saudi Arabia 2023 Elnaggar et al. [34]
CIPS Registered Dietitians 31.9 266 USA 2023 Hernandez et al. [35]
CIPS Pharmacist 53 380 USA 2023 Macias-Moriarity et al. [36]
CIPS Medical Students 65.4 399 Pakistan 2022 Mashhadi et al. [37]
CIPS Medical Students 45.2 290 Bahrain 2022 Naser et al. [38]
CIPS Medical Students 75.8 277 Canada 2023 Neufeld et al. [39]
CIPS Nurses 85.9 78 UK 2024 Ord et al. [40]
CIPS Family Medicine Residents 32.97 185 USA 2004 Oriel et al. [41]
CIPS Medical Students 87 257 USA 2021 Rosenthal et al. [42]
CIPS Pediatric Residency 62 133 Turkey 2024 Samur et al. [43]
CIPS Physicians 23.1 3116 USA 2022 Shanafelt et al. [44]
CIPS Undergraduate Clinical Medical Students 47.4 228 Thailand 2023 Shinawatra et al. [45]
CIPS Respiratory Therapy (RT) Students 92 901 Saudi Arabia 2024 Siraj et al. [46]
CIPS Employees in the National University Health System (NUHS) 61 349 Singapore 2023 Tan et al. [47]
CIPS Medical and surgical postgraduate trainees 91 201 Sri Lanka 2024 Vidanapathirana et al. [48]
CIPS Young neurosurgeons and residents in neurosurgery 81.6 103 Italy 2022 Zaed et al. [49]
CIPS Surgical Residents 36.53 156 Pakistan 2023 Zeb et al. [50]
CIPS neurosurgeons 94 232 Europe 2024 Zoia et al. [26]
YIS2 Graduates of medical, dental and pharmaceutical sciences 57.8 384 Saudi Arabia 2020 Alrayyes et al. [51]
YIS Medical Students 42.1 573 Saudi Arabia 2021 Alsaleem et al. [52]
YIS Medical Students 24.3 523 Saudi Arabia 2024 El-Setouhy et al. [53]
YIS Graduate allied health students 37.5 72 Australia 2020 Schmulian et al. [54]
online survey Medical Students 90.7 230 USA 2024 Geiger et al. [55]
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1The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale

2young imposter scale

Global prevalence of imposter syndrome (IS)

In a review of 30 studies with a sample size of 11,483 participants, the I2 heterogeneity test revealed high heterogeneity (I2: 98.6), prompting the use of the random effects method to analyze the results. Based on the meta-analysis, the prevalence of imposter syndrome was found to be 62% (95% CI: 52.6–70.6) (Fig. 2). Additionally, the Begg and Mazumdar correlation test for publication bias showed evidence of publication bias in the studies (p: 0.049) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Forest plot of the prevalence of imposter syndrome based on the random effect's method

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Funnel plot to examine publication bias in reviewed studies

In examining the factors influencing the heterogeneity of the studies and the effect of sample size on this heterogeneity, it was found that as sample size increases, the prevalence of imposter syndrome decreases (p < 0.05) (Fig. 4). Additionally, with an increase in the year of the study, the prevalence of imposter syndrome was observed to rise (p < 0.05) (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Meta-regression of the effect of sample size on the prevalence of imposter syndrome

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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Meta-regression of the effect of the year of study on the prevalence of imposter syndrome

Based on the results in Table 2, which reports the prevalence of imposter syndrome by measurement tool, the highest prevalence was reported using the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS), with a prevalence of 64.5 (95%CI: 53.7–74.1), followed by the Young Impostor Scale (YIS) instrument, with a prevalence of 39.9% (95% CI: 25.8–55.9), Other measurement tools were only included in one study [55] and were not included in the analysis. (Table 2).

Table 2.

Prevalence of imposter syndrome by measurement instrument

Measurement Instrument N Sample size I2 Begg and mazumdar correlation test Prevalence (95%CI)
CIPS 25 9701 98.8 0.154 64.5 (95%CI: 53.7–74.1)
YIS 4 1552 97.03 1.000 39.9 (95%CI: 25.8–55.9)
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Factors associated with imposter syndrome (IS)

Various studies have mentioned factors associated with the prevalence of IS (Table 3), however the rates for each associated factor have been reported differently. Additionally, the heterogeneous results have limited the possibility of conducting a meta-analysis of individual risk factors. Nonetheless, some factors associated with IS are highlighted in more details in the following sub-sections:

Table 3.

The details of studies included in the review

Author Year Location Population Sample Size Results
S Alrayyes et al. [51] 2020 Saudi Arabia Young Adults 384 Results showed that there was a statistical association between IS and gender (p < 0.01), depression (p < 0.001), stress (p < 0.001), and all 3 domains of burnout (p < 0.01)
L Alsaleem et al. [52] 2021 Saudi Arabia Medical Students 573 The results showed a positive correlation between low self-esteem and positive IS (P < 0.0001). Also, among the socio-demographic characteristics, the only association found with IS was the gender of the student, which was statistically significant (P < 0.0001)
Z Alzufari et al. [29] 2020 United Arab Emirates Medical Students 399 Among all the investigated characteristics, pure academic factors such as field of study (p = 0.001), study phases (p = 0.032), advisor’s attitude (p = 0.029), and comparison with peers’ performance and grades (p = 0.024 and p < 0.001, respectively) exhibited the highest significant association with the severity of imposter syndrome
A R Anderson et al. [56] 2024 USA Physical Therapists 514

Having management/supervisory experience (odds ratio (OR) = 0.55, 95% CI = 0.34–0.90) was associated with a reduced odds of IP presence. The results also showed that Holding a bachelor's or master's degree (vs. Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT); OR = 2.31, 95% CI = 1.07–5.00), a history of or current mental health diagnosis (OR = 2.77, 95% CI = 1.69–4.54), and emotional exhaustion (moderate vs. low:

OR = 5.37, 95% CI = 2.11–13.69; high vs. low: OR = 14.13, 95% CI = 5.56–35.89) were each associated with an increased odds of IS presence
N S Bernard et al. [57] 2002 USA Undergraduate Psychology Students 190

Correlation and regression analyses support the predicted relations of imposter measures with high neuroticism and low conscientiousness. Facet-level correlations showed that depression and anxiety were particularly important characteristics of those with imposter feelings as well as

Low self-discipline and perceived competence. (p < 0.001)
D Bhardwaj et al. [58] 2024 India University Nursing Students 308 The results indicate that Nurses with with higher impostorism phenomenon had lower self-esteem (P < 0.001) and higher anxiety (P < 0.001)
M A Carroll et al. [59] 2023 USA Practicing Physical Therapists 422 The results showed a moderate negative correlation between age and CIPS, (r = -.36, p < 0.001). The results also showed a small positive relationship exists between the CIPS and the ambiguity tolerance scale, r = 0.10, p < 0.05
DN Carvajal et al. [33] 2023 USA Family Medicine 430 Inadequate mentorship (P < 0.05) and poor professional belonging (P < 0.05) were independently associated with IS
S Deshmukh et al. [60] 2022 USA Radiologists 30

The results showed There was significant (p = 0.024) correlation between imposter phenomenon

And burnout
A M El-Ashry et al. [61] 2024 Egypt Nursing Students 1572 IS was positively correlated with depression, anxiety, and stress, and the total score of the Depression Anxiety Stress scale (r = 0.639, p < 0.001)
M El-Setouhy et al. [53] 2024 Saudi Arabia Medical Students 523

IS and self-esteem had negative correlation (p < 0.001). The results also showed that several socio-demographic factors, including 2nd and 4 th-year students, forced

Study choice, and a grade point average (GPA) of 3.0–3.49 (P < 0.05), were associated with increased IS (P < 0.05). Additionally, Paternal education

Beyond high school was associated with lower IS (P < 0.05)
J Fenn et al. [62] 2024 India Gamers 376

The results of this study showed a strong positive relationship between gaming addiction and the impostor phenomenon (p < 0.001), with males presenting higher levels of gaming addiction and the

Imposter phenomenon than females
H M Hutchins et al. [63] 2015 USA Higher Education Faculty 61 Emotional exhaustion of faculty members was positively correlated with IS (p < 0.01) and that faculty members who reported medium to high IS also reported greater use of adaptive coping skills to address imposter thoughts
L R Kogan et al. [64] 2020 USA Veterinarians 941 Regression analysis in this study showed that residing in New Zealand (NZ) or the UK (p < 0.001), being female or having been in practice for less than five years (p < 0.001) increased the odds of having a high IS score
M LaPalme et al. [16] 2022 USA Pre-service Educators 1643 IS was negatively associated with educator well-being (p < 0.001). The study also showed that emotional regulation ability had a small negative correlation with Impostor thoughts (r =  − 0.05, p = 0.03). The results also showed that adaptive coping strategies had a small negative correlation with imposter thoughts (r =  − 0.09, p < 0.001)
L Z Macias-Moriarity et al. [36] 2023 USA Female Pharmacy Faculty 380 The results of this study showed a significant negative correlation between IP scores and the Short GRIT Scale (GRIT-S) scores; meaning that faculty members who reported higher GRIT-S scores had lower IS (r = −0.40, P <.001). The study also showed that IP was correlated with job satisfaction, as faculty reporting higher levels of IP reported lower job satisfaction (r = −0.31, P <.001)
S F Mashhadi et al. [37] 2022 Pakistan Medical Students 399 The results of this study showed a positive association between IS and gender (p < 0.001), age (p < 0.001), year of study (p < 0.001), and academic performance in class (p = 0.002) among medical students with IS
M J Naser et al. [38] 2022 Bahrain Medical Students 290 A strongly negative correlation between CIPS and RSES (r = −0.71, p < 0.001); with low self-esteem being a strong predictor of IP
A Neufeld et al. [39] 2023 Canada Medical Students 277 Having an impersonal general causality orientation, more controlled motivation toward going to medical school, were associated with increased IP severity (p < 0.001). The study also showed a negative association autonomy, competence, and relatedness satisfaction in the medical program and IP severity (p < 0.001)
M Neureiter et al. [65] 2016 Austria University students and working professionals 322 In both study samples, both university students and working professionals in universities, impostor feelings were fostered by fear of failure (p < 0.001), fear of success (p < 0.001), and low self-esteem (p < 0.001), but was reduced by career planning (p = 0.001), career striving (p = 0.048), and the motivation to lead (p = 0.005). The results also showed that IS had the most negative impact on career planning and career striving in students and on the motivation to lead in working professionals
M Opara et al. [66] 2023 Slovenia Physiotherapy Students 106 A small but statistically significant negative correlation (r = −0.20, p = 0.039) between age and CIPS category, This indicates that higher student age is associated with smaller degree of IS. Similarly, the study showed a small negative correlation but statistically significant (r = −0.19, p = 0.048) between year of study and CIPS category, which indicates that higher year of study is also associated with smaller degree of IS. Additionally, a statistically significant negative correlation was found between clinical work experience classification and CIPS category (r = −0.34; p < 0.001), as well as between clinical work experience category and the total CIPS score (r = −0.31; p < 0.001)
K Oriel et al. [41] 2004 USA Family Medicine Residents 185 IS scores had a correlation with depressive symptoms (r2 =.45, P < 0.0001), trait anxiety (r2 =.65, P < 0.0001), and state anxiety (r2 =.39, P < 0.0001). The study also showed that individuals with the highest IS scores had the lowest self-esteem on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (r2 = -.63, P <.0001)
S Rosenthal et al. [42] 2021 USA Medical Students 257 Students with higher IP scores had significantly lower mean scores on self-compassion, sociability self-esteem (P <.0001 for all), getting along with peers (P =.03). Lower IS scores were associated with lower average scores in neuroticism/anxiety and loneliness (P <.001 for both)
B M Samur et al. [43] 2024 Turkey Paediatric Residents 113 The analysis also revealed a significant correlation and a monotonic-linear trend between IP scores and the decision-making process, even after excluding the unsuccessful participants (P <.001)
P Shinawatra et al. [45] 2023 Thailand Undergraduate Clinical Medical Students 228 The results from the multivariable analysis showed that high levels of stress (adjusted odds ratio = 2.315; 95% confidence interval = 1.105–4.853), anxiety (6.462; 1.374–30.392), and depression (4.219; 1.448–12.290) were significantly associated with an increased risk of experiencing the impostor phenomenon
R A Siraj et al. [46] 2024 Saudi Arabia Respiratory Therapy (RT) Students 901 There was a significant association between Impostor Syndrome and low self-esteem (p < 0.001). Other factors associated with IS in this study included family income (P < 0.005), parents’ education (P < 0.005), quitting intention (P < 0.005), and having been diagnosed with psychological disorders (P < 0.005)
A J W Takaoka et al. [67] 2024 Netherlands Software Engineers 224 Happiness, depression, and anxiety had a high positive correlation with IS (r (203) = 0.85, p < 0.0001). The study also showed a negative correlation between mental health literacy and IS, happiness, anxiety, and depression
M Vidanapathirana et al. [48] 2024 Sri Lanka Medical and Surgical Postgraduate Trainees 201

The study results showed significant associations between IP and sociodemographic factors such as being single, lack of friendships outside medicine and improvement in financial status related to medical

profession, and improved financial status related to the medical profession (p < 0.05); academic factors such as satisfaction with pursuing postgraduate training and satisfaction with

academic performance (p < 0.05); work-related factors such as early stages of postgraduate training, lack of confidence in communicating with superiors and other specialties, receiving criticism from the team and sense of guilt regarding patient outcomes (p < 0.05)
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Self-esteem

Normally, achievements contribute to the development of self-esteem. However, in individuals with imposter syndrome (IS), the inability to internalize successes prevents the development of high self-esteem [65]. As a result, several studies have associated self-esteem with imposter syndrome (IS) [38, 41, 42, 46, 52, 53, 58, 65] (Table 3).

In a study by Naser et al., conducted among students at an international medical college in the Middle East, low self-esteem was found to be a strong predictor of imposter syndrome (p < 0.001) [38]. Oriel et al. found that those who scored highest on the Imposter Syndrome Scale (CIPS) had the lowest self-esteem according to the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (r2 = −0.63, P < 0.0001) [41]. Rosenthal et al. reported that students with higher scores on the Imposter Syndrome (IS) scale had lower mean scores on the Social Self-Esteem scale (P < 0.0001) [42]. Similarly, El-Setouhy et al. found a significant negative correlation between imposter syndrome (IS) and self-esteem (P < 0.001) [53]. Siraj et al. also reported a significant correlation between IS and low self-esteem (P < 0.001) [46]. Bhardwaj et al. observed that participants with higher IS scores had lower self-esteem (P < 0.001) [58]. Alsaleem et al. found a positive correlation between low self-esteem and imposter syndrome (P < 0.0001) [52]. Finally, in the study by Neureiter et al., which included two population samples, imposter syndrome was reinforced by low self-esteem in both groups (P < 0.001) [65] (Table 3).

Anxiety

Anxiety is one of the factors associated with imposter syndrome (IS) that has been mentioned in several studies [41, 42, 45, 57, 58, 61, 67]. In the study by El-Ashry et al., imposter syndrome (IS) was positively correlated with anxiety and the total score of the anxiety scale (r = 0.639, p < 0.001) [61]. In the study by Oriel et al., imposter syndrome (IS) was highly correlated with anxiety (P < 0.0001) [41]. In a study by Rosenthal et al., conducted among medical students, low scores on the Imposter Syndrome (IS) were associated with low mean scores on anxiety (P < 0.001) [42]. In a study by Takaoka et al., conducted among 224 participants, a positive correlation was identified between the Imposter Syndrome (IS) and anxiety (P < 0.0001) [67]. Participants with higher Imposter Syndrome (IS) in the study by Bhardwaj et al., had higher anxiety (P < 0.001) [58]. Surface correlations in the study by Bernard et al., indicated that anxiety was an important characteristic of individuals with the Imposter Syndrome (IS) (P < 0.001) [57]. The results of multivariate analysis in the study by Shinawatra et al., indicated that high levels of anxiety (6.462; 1.374–30.392) were significantly associated with an increased risk of experiencing the Imposter Syndrome (IS) [45] (Table 3).

Depression

Depression is another factor associated with imposter syndrome (IS) that has been mentioned in a large number of studies [41, 45, 51, 57, 61, 67]. Alrayyes et al. found a statistical relationship between IS and depression in their study (p < 0.001) [51]. Surface correlations in the study of Bernard et al. showed that depression is an important characteristic of people with imposter syndrome (IS) (p < 0.001) [57]. In the study of El-Ashry et al., imposter syndrome (IS) was positively correlated with depression and the total score of the depression scale (r = 0.639, p < 0.001) [61]. In the study of Oriel et al., imposter syndrome (IS) was significantly associated with depression (P < 0.0001) [41]. Moreover, in the study of Takaoka et al., a positive correlation was identified between imposter syndrome (IS) and depression (p < 0.0001) [67]. Multivariate analysis results in the study by P Shinawatra.et al., showed that high levels of depression (4.219; 1.448–12.290) were significantly associated with an increased risk of experiencing imposter syndrome (IS) [45] (Table 3).

Stress

Stress is another factor associated with imposter syndrome (IS) that has been mentioned in three studies [45, 51, 61]. Multivariate analysis results in the study by Shinawatra.et al., showed that high levels of stress (adjusted odds ratio = 2.315; 95% confidence interval = 1.105–4.853) were significantly associated with an increased risk of experiencing imposter syndrome (IS) [45]. Alrayyes.et al. found a statistical relationship between IS and stress (p < 0.001) [51]. In the study by El-Ashry et al., imposter syndrome (IS) was positively correlated with stress and total stress scale score (r = 0.639, p < 0.001) [61] (Table 3).

Burnout

Impostor syndrome (IS) can lead individuals to burnout; a state of fatigue and apathy resulting from a mismatch between the individual’s job demands and the resources available to manage them. In this regard, two articles have pointed out the relationship between these two variables [51, 60]. Alrayyes et al. found a statistical relationship between imposter syndrome (IS) and all three areas of burnout (p < 0.01) [51]. Deshmukh et al., in another study that examined imposter syndrome (IS) in radiologists and evaluated its correlation with burnout in them, concluded that there is a significant correlation (p = 0.024) between these two [60] (Table 3).

Age

Three studies have examined the association of age with imposter syndrome (IS) [37, 59, 66]. In the study by Opara et al., there was a small (r = −0.20), but statistically significant (p = 0.039) negative correlation between age and CIPS category. This suggests that higher student age is associated with lower levels of imposter syndrome (IS) [66]. In another study by Mashhadi et al., there was a positive correlation between imposter syndrome (IS) and age (p < 0.001) of participants [37]. In the study by Carroll et al., there was a moderate negative correlation between age and CIPS (r = −0.36, p < 0.001) [59] (Table 3).

Gender

Gender is another factor that has been associated with imposter syndrome (IS) [37, 51, 52]. Alrayyes.et al. in their study found a statistical association between imposter syndrome (IS) and gender (p < 0.01) [51]. Alsaleem.et al. also found a significant association (P < 0.0001) between imposter syndrome (IS) and gender [52]. In another study conducted by Mashhadi.et al., there was a positive association between imposter syndrome (IS) and gender (p < 0.001) of the participants (Table 3).

Other factors

Academic year [37, 66], tolerance of ambiguity [59], inadequate mentorship [33], poor professional belonging [33], emotional exhaustion [56, 63], well-being [16], ability to regulate emotions [16], adaptive coping strategies [16], grit [36], job satisfaction [36], academic performance [37], clinical work experience [66], self-compassion [42], sociability self-esteem [42], getting along with peers [42], loneliness [42], decision-making process [43], family income [46], parents’ education [46], quitting intention [46], having been diagnosed with psychological disorders [46], happiness [67], sociodemographic factors [48], academic factors [48], work-related factors [48], low self-discipline [57], fear of failure [65], fear of success [65], career planning [65], motivation to lead [65], career striving [65], field of study [29], study phases [29], advisor’s attitude [29], comparison with peers’ performance and grades [29], being 2nd and 4 th-year students [53], forced study choice [53], grade point average (GPA) of 3.0–3.49 [53], Paternal education beyond high school [53], Having an impersonal general causality orientation [39], more controlled motivation toward going to medical school [39], lower need satisfaction in the medical program [39], Having manager/supervisor experience [56], a history of or current mental health diagnosis [56], and gaming addiction [62] are among other factors that may be related to imposter syndrome (Table 3).

Discussion

Imposterism, also known as imposter syndrome or imposter phenomenon, is an emerging phenomenon that has gained increasing attention in recent years, particularly among high-achieving individuals. Its identification often overlaps with symptoms such as anxiety, depression, burnout, and stress. In the present meta-analysis and systematic review which was aimed at determining the global prevalence of IS, the overall prevalence of the syndrome was found to be 62.1%, which indicates a relatively high prevalence of IS globally. Also, in this study, based on meta-regression testing, it was reported that the prevalence of imposter syndrome increases with the increase in the number of years of study, indicating greater attention to this syndrome and an increase in studies in recent years.

It is estimated that three-quarters of all individuals will be affected by Imposterism at some point in their lives [68]. Accordingly, our findings are comparable to those of a study conducted among dental students in the midwestern United States, which found that 58.3% of respondents had levels of IS above the clinical threshold and experienced significant impact of imposter syndrome on their professional, personal, and academic lives [69]. In other studies, among medical students in Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Bahrain, Canada, and the United States, the prevalence of IS ranged from 41.81% to 89.5% [27, 29, 34, 37–39, 42]. In addition to those in the medical sciences, the syndrome is also present to some extent in nonmedical settings. In one study, the prevalence of IS among pre-service teachers was reported as 93.4% [16]. Similarly, the prevalence of IS among research and academic librarians was 15%; this is approximately three times lower than the prevalence found among medical students [15]. In another study, the prevalence of the syndrome was 35% among engineering students [70]. A possible explanation for this difference in prevalence between medical and non-medical populations could be that medical students are typically perceived as successful individuals in many societies, which puts them under constant pressure and stress [71].

The prevalence of IS depends largely on the screening tools and threshold values ​​used to examine IS symptoms. According to the results presented in Table 2, which reports the prevalence of IS by measurement instrument, the highest prevalence was reported by the CIPS tool with a prevalence of 66.4% (95% CI: 55.3–76) and the YIS tool with a prevalence of 39.9% (95%CI: 25.8–55.9) (Table 2).

Some studies have used the CIPS instrument, which considers a score of less than 40 as no IS; a score of 40 to 59 as mild IS; a score of 60 to 79 as moderate IS; and a score of more than 80 as severe IS [72]. Some authors suggest using a score of 62 as a cutoff value on the CIPS scale, while others suggest using the mean CIPS score in the study sample to distinguish between IS and non-IS sufferers [73]. In the present study, self-esteem was identified as an important associated factor in individuals with IS, such that individuals with higher CIPS scores had lower self-esteem. This finding provided sufficient grounds for the conclusion that self-esteem is an important predictor leading to high IS. Accordingly, the study by Bhardwaj et al. confirms our findings [58]. Other factors such as anxiety, depression, stress, and even burnout can also influence the tendency to engage in IS; for instance, medical students in higher education and those who strive to achieve more are more prone to depression, anxiety, stress, and burnout. Many studies, including El-Ashry et al.’s work confirm this insight [61].

Since research in this area is ongoing, no systematic review with meta-analysis has yet summarized the results on the prevalence of IS among the general population. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to gather empirical evidence and pool the prevalence of IS. The results of the study provide further nuanced insights related to this significant global issue and can inform public health policies. Promoting awareness of mental health and embracing and nurturing supportive environments for individuals can help reduce IS and improve the quality of work and educational settings.

Limitations

The most important limitation of the present study was the lack of prevalence reporting in some of the reviewed studies or incomplete reporting of information in the studies, which led to these studies being excluded from the final review and not included in the meta-analysis. Also, due to the high heterogeneity in reporting in examining factors associated with the prevalence of IS, meta-analysis was not possible. Another limitation of the present study is the significant publication bias in the reviewed studies.

Conclusion

The results of this study showed that the prevalence of IS is relatively high worldwide and is associated with self-esteem, anxiety, depression, stress, and burnout. However, due to high heterogeneity, the results should be interpreted with caution. Moreover, the results of this study can be used by policymakers and help identify the psychological and social needs of affected individuals in order to design and develop support and social programs to prevent IS. These insights can lead to the development of educational and counseling strategies and interventions that aim to reduce negative emotions caused by this syndrome and promote mental health in educational and work environments.

Acknowledgements

By Student Research Committee of Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences.

Abbreviations

IS

Imposter Syndrome

YIS

Young Impostor Scale

CIPS

The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale

STROBE

The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology

PRISMA

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Authors’ contributions

NS and HRH and MM contributed to the design, MM statistical analysis, and participated in most of the study steps. MM and AHF and ARF and PH prepared the manuscript. MM and AHF and HRH and SR and PH assisted in designing the study, and helped in the, interpretation of the study. All authors have read and approved the content of the manuscript.

Funding

By Deputy for Research and Technology, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences (IR) (50005516). This deputy has no role in the study process.

Data availability

Datasets are available through the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethics approval was received from the ethics committee of deputy of research and technology, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences (50005516).

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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