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. 2025 May 30;25:2002. doi: 10.1186/s12889-025-23217-x

Table 8.

Robustness test

Maternal mortality Under-5 mortality
(1) (2) (1) (2)
Density of population -0.987*** -0.982*** -1.081*** -1.102***
(0.0339) (0.0329) (0.0272) (0.0271)
GDP per capita -8.25e-06*** -1.17e-05*** -6.41e-06*** -5.83e-06***
(1.32e-06) (1.56e-06) (1.28e-06) (1.29e-06)
Current health expenditure per capita -3.56e-05*** -1.66e-05 -6.80e-05*** -6.94e-05***
(1.36e-05) (1.57e-05) (1.31e-05) (1.29e-05)
PM2.5 air pollution, mean annual exposure 0.00571*** 0.00632*** 0.00707*** 0.00812***
(0.00104) (0.00103) (0.000837) (0.000845)
Constant 8.164*** 8.169*** 7.532*** 7.609***
(0.145) (0.140) (0.116) (0.116)
Observations 3,458 3,629 3,458 3,629
N 175 175 175 175
R-squared 0.306 0.325 0.442 0.451

Note: Standard errors in parentheses

*** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1