Table 2.

Mechanism of antibiotic resistance.

S. No.	Mechanism	Description	Examples	References
1.	Enzymatic degradation	Bacteria produce enzymes that degrade the antibiotic	Beta-lactamases, carbapenemases	Bush (2018) and Bush and Jacoby (2010)
2.	Efflux pumps	Remove any potentially dangerous molecules from the anterior of the cell	RND and MATE	Ghotaslou et al. (2018) and Soto (2013)
3.	Target modification	Modification of antibiotic target	Methylation of 16S rRNA or 23S rRNA, MRSA (mecA gene)	Peterson and Kaur (2018)
4.	Reduced permeability	Changes in cell membrane permeability	Porin	Delcour (2009)
5.	Biofilm formation	Bacteria form biofilms that protect them from antibiotics and the immune system	Campylobacter jejuni	Buret and Allain (2023) and Grooters et al. (2024)
6.	Horizontal gene transfer	Transfer of ARGs between bacteria via plasmids, transposons, or phages	Conjugation, transformation, transduction	Groussin et al. (2021) and Huddleston (2014),
7.	Antibiotic modification	Enzymatic alteration of the antibiotic (phosphorylation, acetylation, and adenylation)	N-acetyl transferases, O-phosphotransferases, O-adenyltransferases	Peterson and Kaur (2018)