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. 2025 May 20;16:1600673. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2025.1600673

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Copyright © 2025 Gu, Ma, Chang and Chen

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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The box plot showed the alpha diversity metrics of the 4 groups. Chao1 index and observed species indicated that the induction of EAU could lead to the decreased richness of gut microbiota, while PD-L1 knockout in EAU mice could lead to the increase in richness when compared to wild type EAU mice. WT group, wild type control group; KO group, PD-L1 knockout group; WT_EAU group, group of EAU induced in wild type mice; KO_EAU group, group of EAU induced in PD-L1 knockout mice; * P<0.05; ns, no significance.