Associations between physical exercise and social-emotional competence in primary school children

Abstract

To investigate the impact of physical exercise on social-emotional competence in primary school children, and to examine the mediating role of peer attachment and the moderating role of gender. A stratified sampling method was employed to select students from grades 3 to 6 in six primary schools located in the eastern, central, and western regions of Hunan Province. The PARS-3, S-ECI, and Simplified IPPA were administered, resulting in the collection of 1180 valid questionnaires. (1) Correlation analyses revealed significant positive relationships between physical exercise and social-emotional competence, physical exercise and peer attachment, and peer attachment and social-emotional competence. (2) Peer attachment partially mediated the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence in primary school children. (3) Gender differences were observed in the strength and direction of these relationships, with boys demonstrating stronger exercise-related benefits while girls exhibited greater developmental gains through enhanced peer relationships. Physical exercise is associated with the social-emotional competence of primary school children in a direct positive manner and can also be linked to this competence through the mediating of role peer attachment. Moreover, gender moderates the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence, with physical exercise being more strongly associated with boys’ social-emotional competence than with girls’. However, as peer attachment increases, girls’ social-emotional competence tends to develop more favorably than boys’. These findings provide a theoretical basis for developing targeted physical exercise interventions to promote the social-emotional competence of primary school children.

Introduction

With the rapid development of global politics, economy, technology, and culture, as well as profound changes in modes of production, modern society has set higher demands for individuals’ comprehensive capabilities. Although cognitive abilities play a crucial role in education and career development, they alone are insufficient to meet the needs of individuals for happiness and success in a complex and changing social environment. Social-emotional competence, also known as “non-cognitive ability,” “emotional intelligence,” or “non-intellectual factors,” has increasingly garnered attention and is considered one of the core elements of human development and growth. The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) in the United States pioneered research in this field. Based on Goleman’s emotional intelligence theory, CASEL defines social emotional competence as the ability to “identify and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, understand others’ perspectives, build and maintain supportive relationships, make responsible decisions, and constructively handle interpersonal situations”, specifically encompassing the five key abilities of self - awareness, self - management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making¹. Social-emotional competence is of great significance in the fields of education and society. First of all, it is considered as one of the key factors for students’ academic success. Research shows that SEC can improve academic performance by promoting students’ self-regulation, cooperation and emotional management². Secondly, the development of SEC is crucial for students’ mental health and behavioral development. Through effective social-emotional learning (SEL) programs, students can make significant progress in emotional regulation and social interaction, which not only enhances their subjective well-being, but also reduces social anxiety and loneliness^3,4. In addition, improving SEC can also enhance students’ social adaptability. Studies have found that there is a positive correlation between physical exercise and SEC as well as self-esteem, and these factors jointly promote the social adaptability of college students⁵. Consequently, an increasing number of countries and international organizations have incorporated the cultivation of social-emotional competence into the important domains and trends of talent development. For instance, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) emphasizes that the goal of education is not only to impart knowledge but also to help students build a reliable navigation system and tools that enable them to move forward confidently in a complex, changing, and uncertain world⁶.

In China, primary education, as a crucial phase of basic education, has long focused on enhancing students’ cognitive abilities. This emphasis has, to some extent, led to an imbalance in students’ ability structures, resulting in phenomena such as “high scores but low practical ability” and “small-town problem solvers,” which fail to meet the modern society’s demand for innovative and versatile talents. However, existing research has predominantly concentrated on adolescent groups, with relatively less attention devoted to children, particularly those in middle-to-late childhood. Relevant studies have indicated that middle-to-late childhood (6–12 years old) is a sensitive period for the development of social - emotional competence¹. Neuroscientific research shows that the neuroplasticity window of the prefrontal cortex in SEC development peaks at 10–12 years old⁷. Also, basic ability deficits in primary school can intensify adolescents’ adaptation risks through cumulative effects⁸. In contrast, adolescent social - emotional development is more influenced by peers than systematic interventions⁹. Moreover, longitudinal studies based on the CASEL framework indicate that SEC training in primary school yields a more significant effect size in academic achievement than interventions in middle school¹⁰. Hence, our study focuses on primary school students. This not only suits the actual educational development needs but also helps promote the in-depth development of SEC training in basic education. Furthermore, prior research has paid insufficient attention to gender specific mechanisms in the development of social - emotional competence. Innovatively, this study integrates physical exercise and peer attachment into a unified developmental ecological framework to explore how these dual protective factors interact with gender.

The impact of physical exercise on social-emotional competence

Social-emotional competence, like cognitive ability, is highly developmental and malleable. Numerous studies have shown that physical exercise plays a significant role in promoting the development of social-emotional competence in adolescents¹¹. Physical exercise is defined as a planned and organized physical activity aimed at enhancing physical health, with specific intensity, frequency, and duration¹². In addition to improving physical fitness, physical exercise is also crucial for the development of social adaptation skills in individuals¹³. Research by Ubago-Jiménez et al.¹⁴ has found a significant positive relationship between physical exercise and emotional intelligence, with students who engage in more physical exercise showing higher levels of emotional intelligence. Moreover, Keating et al.¹⁵ proposed that participation in sports activities can promote the development of emotional intelligence. The release of endorphins and other hormones during physical activity, acting as natural mood regulators, aids in emotional repair and protects individuals from the negative impacts of stress, unhealthy lifestyles, and substance abuse¹⁶. Agreeableness is a key component of social-emotional competence. Research indicates that play fighting program interventions can significantly reduce aggressive behaviors in adolescents compared to traditional PE programs¹⁷. Experimental results by Goh et al.¹⁸ demonstrated that a 6-week physical activity intervention significantly enhanced the social-emotional competence of primary and middle school students. This finding further confirms the potential of school-based physical activity programs in helping students improve self-regulation skills and overall social-emotional health¹⁹. Additionally, students who participated in moderate-intensity physical activity lasting more than 30 min exhibited higher positive affect and lower negative affect²⁰. Experimental studies by Felver et al.²¹ also found that primary school students who participated in a yoga intervention showed significant improvements in social-emotional competence compared to the control group, with these improvements persisting over time after the intervention, while no significant changes were observed in the control group.

Although existing research generally supports the positive correlation between physical exercise and social-emotional competence, the specific mechanisms underlying the impact of physical exercise on social-emotional competence remain unclear. Based on previous studies, the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence may involve both direct and indirect links, and may also be moderated by certain factors. Therefore, this study aims to explore the mediating and moderating effects of physical exercise on the social-emotional competence of primary school children. This research seeks to further enrich the understanding of the mechanisms underlying social-emotional competence and provide a theoretical basis for enhancing social-emotional competence in primary school children. Additionally, it aims to offer scientific support for curriculum reform in China’s basic education stage.

The mediating role of peer attachment

Attachment is defined as the emotional bond that an individual forms with significant others, providing protection, support, and a sense of security²². According to Bowlby’s attachment theory, attachment is a psychological model formed through early interactions with caregivers, influencing subsequent interpersonal relationships and emotional regulation²³. Throughout their lives, individuals establish various types of attachment relationships, including parent-child attachment, peer attachment, and romantic attachment. Peer attachment refers to the extension of emotional connections from parents to peers during an individual’s development, forming intimate and supportive emotional bonds²⁴. As children grow older, peer attachment gradually becomes the primary attachment outside the family, exerting a significant impact on mental health²⁵. Research has shown a significant positive correlation between physical exercise and peer attachment. For example, a study on adolescents found that active participation in physical exercise significantly enhances peer attachment by increasing peer interactions and teamwork, thereby providing individuals with greater support and recognition²⁶. Moreover, physical activities can expand the number of peer groups and improve the quality of peer relationships²⁷. For instance, engaging in sports can increase interactions among individuals with similar interests, thereby promoting the establishment of positive interpersonal relationships²⁸. Peer attachment may mediate the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence²⁹. Social-emotional competence involves dimensions such as emotional regulation, behavioral self-control, and empathy³⁰. Positive peer attachment can effectively reduce negative emotions such as anxiety and depression, enhance emotional regulation abilities, and decrease the occurrence of problematic behaviors³¹. Additionally, close peer relationships can foster the formation of positive cognitions, enabling individuals to maintain better psychological stability when facing setbacks²⁴. For example, peer support can enhance an individual’s self-confidence and self-efficacy, thereby better equipping them to cope with stress³². A meta-analytic study also indicated a small-to-moderate positive correlation between peer relationships and empathy, which is significantly stronger than the correlation between parent-child relationships and empathy³³.

While prior studies have established associations between physical exercise and peer attachment, as well as between peer attachment and social-emotional competence, the potential mediating function of peer attachment in linking physical exercise to social-emotional competence remains unexplored. Based on these conceptual linkages, this study hypothesizes that physical exercise is associated with higher levels of social-emotional competence in primary school children, and that peer attachment may serve as a mediator in this relationship.

The moderating role of gender

Gender is a significant demographic variable in psychological research and a relatively stable personal attribute that is minimally influenced by situational factors. These characteristics make gender a commonly employed moderator in studies examining its impact on other psychological and behavioral factors³⁴. The significance of gender stems not only from its biological properties but also from the expectations and shaping of gender roles by sociocultural contexts. Throughout individual development, different gender roles are ascribed by the sociocultural environment, leading to diverse manifestations of gender in the socialization process. For example, males and females typically exhibit significant differences in adaptive behaviors, which are shaped by both social factors and biological mechanisms³⁵. During socialization, the construction of gender roles has a profound impact on individuals’ social-emotional competence. Existing research has shown that females exhibit higher levels of social-emotional competence than males³⁶. This competence encompasses the ability to recognize emotions, empathize with others, and establish and maintain positive relationships. From a biological perspective, gender differences are also reflected in brain function during emotional tasks. For instance, some studies have found that certain brain regions responsible for emotion processing (e.g., the amygdala and prefrontal cortex) are more active in females than in males. These neurobiological differences further support the superiority of females in social-emotional competence¹⁶.

Moreover, gender differences are also evident in social behavior and participation in physical exercise. Roy et al.³⁷ found that female college students participate in sports activities more frequently than their male counterparts, although this frequency is also influenced by the intensity of the activity. The research indicates that males tend to engage more in high-intensity physical activities, such as strength training or competitive sports, while females prefer moderate-to-low-intensity activities, such as walking, cycling, or yoga. These differences reflect not only distinct preferences in exercise modes but may also be related to sociocultural expectations of gender-specific behaviors. Peer attachment is another important manifestation of gender differences. Studies have consistently found that females exhibit stronger peer attachment than males³⁸. Compared to males, females are more inclined to derive a sense of identity and emotional support from close relationships. O’Koon³⁹ noted that females’ sense of identity primarily stems from intimate relationships, while males rely more on autonomy and rational thinking. This trend may be associated with females’ higher levels of interpersonal trust and willingness to accept others’ opinions and emotional support, which in turn reinforces their social advantages. Given that gender is related to multiple factors in this study, it is employed as a moderating variable to provide a more comprehensive exploration of the mechanisms underlying the development of social-emotional competence in primary school children.

Research objectives and hypotheses

Based on a review of the existing literature, this study attempts to integrate physical exercise (an individual behavioral factor) and peer attachment (a social relational factor) into the social - emotional competence development model, a conceptual integration rarely attempted in prior studies. Second, leveraging the neurodevelopmental sensitive window identified during the maturation of the prefrontal cortex (ages 10–12), we focus specifically on middle-to-late childhood rather than the commonly studied adolescent period. In addition, this study plans to explore the impact of physical exercise and peer attachment on the social-emotional competence of primary school children of different genders. These investigations will offer valuable insights for developing targeted social-emotional competence interventions for different gender groups.

Based on the literature review, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1: Physical exercise is positively associated with social-emotional competence in primary school children.

H2: Peer attachment mediates the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence in primary school children.

H3: Gender moderates the direct path from physical exercise to social-emotional competence and the latter half of the mediating process.

Based on these hypotheses, a moderated mediation model was constructed, as illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

The hypothesized model of moderated mediation effect.

Methods

Participants and procedure

Participants

This study employed a stratified random sampling method, selecting two primary schools from each of the three geographical regions (eastern, central, and western) of Hunan Province—one located in an urban area and the other in a rural area—totaling six primary schools. The study targeted students in grades 3 to 6 from these schools. Two classes were selected from each grade of every school, totaling 48 classes. All participating students voluntarily engaged in the study with informed consent from their parents or guardians. Demographic information of the participants is detailed in Table 1. The following inclusion criteria were used when selecting participants: (1) Students in grades 3 to 6 attending regular primary school classes; (2) Willingness to participate in the questionnaire survey and commitment to complete the survey truthfully based on their actual experiences; (3) Absence of known psychological or physiological conditions (e.g., depression, mental disorders, or consciousness disorders) that might impair their ability to accurately understand and complete the questionnaire. The following exclusion criteria were used when selecting participants: (1) Students not in grades 3 to 6; (2) Presence of severe learning or communication disabilities that could affect the accuracy of questionnaire completion; (3) Lack of parental or guardian consent for participation in the study. Data collection was conducted from June 10 to July 25, 2024.

Table 1.

Participants’ demographic information (N = 1180).

Characteristics	Category	Sample size		Percentage
Gender	Male		580	49.15%
	Female		600	50.85%
Grade	Third grade	Male(108)	227	19.24%
		Female(119)
	Fourth grade	Male(113)	239	20.25%
		Female(126)
	Fifth grade	Male(150)	298	25.25%
		Female(148)
	Sixth grade	Male(210)	416	35.25%
		Female(206)
One-child family	Yes	Male(132)	242	20.51%
		Female(110)
	No	Male(448)	938	79.49%
		Female(490)

Procedure

The questionnaire survey was administered by class teachers during break times. Prior to distribution, teachers clearly explained the purpose of the study, the anonymity of the questionnaire, and the voluntary nature of participation. They emphasized that the survey did not involve any personal privacy information and that students had the right to withdraw at any time during completion. Under the guidance of the teachers, students completed the paper-based questionnaires on-site, resulting in a total of 1,376 questionnaires collected. Following collection, researchers screened each questionnaire to exclude invalid responses: (1) Questionnaires with obvious patterned responses (e.g., continuous selection of the same option); (2) Questionnaires with incomplete demographic information or missing critical data; (3) Questionnaires with unanswered or unclear responses to key questions. After screening, 1,180 valid questionnaires were retained, yielding an effective response rate of 85.76%.

Research tools

Physical activity rating scale (PARS-3)

The “Sports Activity Rating Scale” compiled by Liang was used to investigate the physical exercise levels of the participants⁴⁰. Calculation formula: Total score of physical exercise = score of exercise frequency × (score of exercise time − 1) × score of exercise intensity. The scale consists of 3 questions, each scoring from 1 to 5 for 5 options and a total score of 100 points. The higher the score is, the higher the subjects’ level of physical exercise is. The retest reliability of this scale is 0.82⁴¹.

Social-emotional competencies items (S-ECI)

In this study, the Social-emotional Competencies Items developed by Melnick et al.⁴² were employed. This scale consists of 40 items that assess five domains: self - awareness (10 items, e.g., “Knowing what my strengths are”), self - management (14 items, e.g., Getting through something even when I feel frustrated), social awareness (5 items, e.g., Learning from people with different opinions than me), relationship skills (6 items, e.g., Getting along with classmates), and responsible decision - making (5 items, e.g., Knowing what is right or wrong). It uses a Likert four - point scale, where 1 indicates “strongly disagree” and 4 indicates “strongly agree”. Higher scores denote stronger social-emotional competencies among primary school children. In the present study, the overall Cronbach’s α coefficient for the scale was 0.954, while the Cronbach’s α coefficients for the individual dimensions were 0.829, 0.910, 0.783, 0.789, and 0.788, respectively, indicating high reliability of the scale. The confirmatory factor analysis fitting index is χ²/df = 4.030, RMSEA = 0.051, IFI = 0.889, TLI = 0.875, CFI = 0.889, indicating good structural validity of the scale.

Simplified inventory of parent and peer attachment

The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) was originally developed by Armsden and Greenberg⁴³ in 1987 to assess attachment relationships between adolescents and their parents and peers. In 1992, Raja et al.⁴⁴ revised the IPPA to create a shortened version. The shortened version of the IPPA comprises 12 items(e.g., I feel my friend are good friend), designed with greater concision to facilitate rapid assessment of attachment relationships between individuals and their peers. The questionnaire employs a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree,” with higher scores indicating more secure attachment relationships. The Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale in the present study was 0.811, indicating high reliability of the scale. The confirmatory factor analysis fitting index is χ²/df = 3.913, RMSEA = 0.050, IFI = 0.973, TLI = 0.959, CFI = 0.973, indicating good structural validity of the scale.

Research methods

Scale reliability tests, common method bias tests, descriptive statistics, and Pearson correlation analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0. Additionally, mediation and moderated mediation analyses were performed using the SPSS macro PROCESS 4.2 developed by Hayes⁴⁵. Model 6 and Model 15 from the 92 typical models provided by Hayes were selected for analysis. The Bootstrap method was employed with 5000 resamples, and statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.

Ethics statement

This study involves research methodology and research procedures that follow the Declaration of Helsinki. The study was approved by the Guangzhou Sports University Ethics Committee (Registration number: 2024LCLL-70). All participants agreed to participate in this research voluntarily; they provided informed consent when they completed the survey and were able to withdraw from the study freely at any time. In addition, our data were anonymized to ensure the privacy of all participants.

Results

Common method deviation testing

Harman’s single-factor test was employed to assess common method bias. The data were subjected to the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. The results indicated a KMO value of 0.963 and a Bartlett’s test of sphericity χ² = 26,586.856, df = 1,485, P < 0.001, suggesting that the data were suitable for factor analysis. An exploratory factor analysis with rotation was conducted, including all variables. 9 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 were extracted. The variance explained by the first factor was 28.654%, which is below the critical threshold of 40%. These results indicate that common method bias is not a significant concern in this study⁴⁶.

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

Results of the correlation analysis (Table 2) revealed significant associations among physical exercise, peer attachment, and social-emotional competence. Additionally, gender was found to be significantly and positively correlated with physical exercise, peer attachment, and social-emotional competence. These findings indicate that the variables examined in this study meet the prerequisite conditions for testing mediating effects. Additionally, results of one-way analysis of variance (Table 3) indicate that there’s no significant difference in social - emotional competence scores among students of different grades (P>0.05). Thus, this variable isn’t considered in subsequent mediation and moderation analyses.

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis of variables.

Variables	M	SD	1	2	3
1. Physical exercise	22.61	21.82	1.00
2. Peer attachment	39.46	9.41	0.128**	1.00
3. Social-emotional competence	120.54	23.09	0.320**	0.372**	1.00
4. Gender	–	–	-0.094**	0.059*	0.060*

^*P<0.05, ^**P<0.01.

Table 3.

Comparison of social-emotional competence scores among students of different grades.

Grade	Number	Score		F	P
		M	SD
Third grade	227	120.41	24.0	1.170	0.320
Fourth grade	239	122.99	25.1
Fifth grade	298	119.87	22.51
Sixth grade	416	119.70	21.74

Mediating effect of peer attachment

The mediating effect of peer attachment between physical exercise and social-emotional competence in primary school children was examined using Model 4 of the PROCESS macro version 4.2. Results indicated that physical exercise was significantly associated with peer attachment (β = 0.055, P<0.001), and peer attachment was similarly associated with social-emotional competence (β = 0.827, P<0.001). Further analysis using the bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method revealed that peer attachment partially mediated the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence, with β = 0.046, SE = 0.012,, and a 95% confidence interval [0.024, 0.069]. The mediating effect accounted for 13.57% of the total effect. (Table 4 for details.).

Table 4.

Testing the mediation model of peer attachment.

Regression equation		Model fit index			Regression coefficients
Outcome variable	Independent variable	R	R2	F	β	SE	t	95%CI
Peer attachment	Physical exercise	0.128	0.016	19.507	0.055	0.012	4.417***	0.031,0.079
Social emotional competence	Physical exercise	0.463	0.214	160.484	0.293	0.028	10.640***	0.239,0.347
	Physical exercise × gender				0.157	0.055	2.834**	0.048,0.265
	Peer attachment				0.827	0.064	12.938***	0.702,0.953
	Peer × gender				−0.390	0.128	−3.053**	−0.640, −0.139

^*P<0.01.

^***P<0.001.

Moderating role of gender

The moderating effects of gender on the direct impact of physical exercise on social-emotional competence in primary school children, as well as on the latter half of the pathway through which peer attachment influences social-emotional competence, were examined using Model 15 of the PROCESS macro version 4.2. Results revealed a statistically significant interaction between physical exercise and gender (β = 0.157, P<0.01), indicating that the strength of the physical exercise-social-emotional competence association varied across gender groups. Furthermore, a significant peer attachment × gender interaction was observed (β=-0.390, P<0.01), demonstrating differential patterns of association between peer attachment and social-emotional competence by gender. These findings are detailed in Table 3.

Further examination of the moderating role of gender was conducted through simple slope analysis. Figure 2 illustrates that, compared to the female group (β = 0.227, P<0.001), the positive association between physical exercise on social-emotional competence was more pronounced in the male group (β = 0.384, P<0.001). Moreover, Fig. 3 shows that gender also moderates the impact of peer attachment on social-emotional competence. Specifically, compared to males (β = 0.611, P<0.001), the positive association between peer attachment on social-emotional competence was stronger in females (β = 1.000, P<0.001).

Fig. 2.

The moderating role of gender in the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence.

Fig. 3.

The moderating role of gender in the relationship between peer attachment and social-emotional competence.

Discussion

Engaging in regular physical activity from a young age can yield numerous benefits for development in physical, psychological, and cognitive domains⁴⁷. Social-emotional competence refers to a set of core abilities that individuals acquire and apply in the complex contexts of growth and development, which are related to individual emotional and social development. This study reveals that peer attachment and gender play mediating and moderating roles in the impact of physical exercise on social-emotional competence in primary school children. These findings not only enrich the theoretical framework of social-emotional competence development but also provide valuable insights for educational reform in basic education.

Physical exercise and social-emotional competence in primary school children

Research findings indicate that physical exercise is positively associated with social-emotional competence in primary school children. This is consistent with previous studies examining the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence in preschoolers⁴⁸, adolescents¹¹, and college students⁴⁹. Research shows that physical exercise enhances not only students’ physical fitness but also their social and emotional well-being. A study on school - aged children’s psychological responses and cognitive functions indicates that physical exercise effectively boosts children’s cognitive abilities and psychological response capabilities⁵⁰. The academic community widely recognizes the “Big Five Model of Personality” as an important theoretical framework for measuring social-emotional competence¹¹. This model comprises five dimensions: conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, emotional stability, and openness⁵¹. Conscientiousness reflects an individual’s ability to achieve goals. Learning and life are filled with difficulties and setbacks, and the attitude with which individuals face these challenges is crucial for their development. Numerous studies have confirmed that individuals who regularly engage in physical exercise become more proficient in sports skills and enhance their self-efficacy in the process⁵². This increase in self-efficacy encourages individuals to take proactive measures to achieve their goals. Agreeableness is characterized by an individual’s generally positive beliefs about others, a tendency to reduce interpersonal conflicts, and a focus on the well-being of others. Physical activities, by fostering social personality traits, can enhance individuals’ self-efficacy and ability to manage negative emotions⁵³. Compared to their sedentary peers, adolescents who actively participate in physical exercise exhibit lower levels of interpersonal anxiety and higher levels of prosocial behavior⁵⁴. Emotional stability refers to an individual’s ability to regulate emotional responses and maintain emotional states. Physical exercise can enhance individuals’ self-control, creating more positive psychological resources. Although maintaining a regular exercise routine requires a significant expenditure of self-control resources in the short term, it increases the overall capacity for self-control in the long run⁵⁵. Moreover, research suggests that physical exercise can reduce college students’ inferiority complex by strengthening social support and emotional regulation. Physical exercise affects psychological resilience directly and mental health indirectly through social support and emotional regulation⁵⁶. Furthermore, from a neurobiological perspective, physical exercise can influence social-emotional competence through various biological mechanisms. For example, aerobic exercise lasting more than 30 min can increase the secretion and synthesis of endorphins, helping individuals maintain emotional stability and enhance cognitive function⁵⁷. In summary, physical exercise benefits both physical and mental health. It can enhance an individual’s psychological response, self-efficacy, social skills, emotional control, and neurobiological mechanisms, positively associated with their social-emotional competence. This finding offers crucial theoretical support for understanding the role of physical exercise in children’s development.

Mediating role of peer attachment

Research findings indicate that peer attachment mediates the impact of physical exercise on social-emotional competence in primary school children, thereby enriching the theoretical framework of social-emotional competence development. A study on university students revealed that the longer the duration of participation in physical exercise, the higher the level of peer support obtained⁵⁸. This support provides a sense of satisfaction and well-being during activities with peers, thereby strengthening peer relationships and enhancing the degree of peer attachment²⁶. Physical exercise is typically conducted in the form of group activities, which offer rich and diverse contexts for interaction among individuals. Primary school children, through cooperation and role division during physical exercise, collectively overcome difficulties or defeat opponents to accomplish specific tasks. This highly interactive activity format reinforces dependence and trust between peers, which are foundational for establishing long-term emotional bonds and forming peer attachment⁵⁸. Simultaneously, according to the internal working model of attachment theory, individuals’ mental representations and cognitive patterns of self and others influence their processing of knowledge, experiences, and emotions within the self-system and social system²². On one hand, the emotional bonds formed with peers provide primary school children with necessary psychological resources. Intimate relationships with peers enable them to obtain more care, trust, and support, thereby enhancing emotional regulation capabilities. This helps avoid excessive fearful, tense, or anxious emotional reactions when facing adversity and setbacks, thus improving psychological resilience⁵⁹. On the other hand, peer attachment enhances primary school children’s empathy, promoting the development of conflict resolution and cooperative skills⁶⁰. Primary school children with close peer relationships are more willing to understand others’ feelings and behaviors from their perspectives³³. The empathy-altruism hypothesis posits that individuals with stronger empathetic traits are more likely to engage in altruistic behaviors⁶¹. In summary, peer attachment is not only a significant factor influencing primary school children’s social-emotional competence but also a driving force for its development. This finding provides important theoretical support for understanding the role of physical exercise in child development and offers a scientific basis for designing future intervention measures.

Moderating role of gender

The current study found that the direct path and the latter half of the mediating effect of peer attachment through which physical exercise influences social-emotional competence in primary school children are both moderated by gender. Specifically, gender moderates the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence in primary school children, with physical exercise having a greater impact on boys’ social-emotional competence. In addition, the study found that boys with lower levels of physical exercise showed a stronger correlation between increased exercise participation and the development of socio-emotional competence. This implies that even low levels of physical activity may have a significant positive impact on adolescents’ social-emotional competence development. From a physiological perspective, hormonal levels influence individual behavior and preferences⁶². Boys tend to engage more frequently in high-intensity physical exercise³⁷, which leads to the secretion of higher levels of testosterone and other hormones. These hormones not only affect physical development and strength but also impact the brain’s emotional regulation centers, enhancing boys’ self-confidence and competitive awareness, thereby facilitating improvements in their social-emotional competence. Boys with lower levels of physical activity may have different hormonal profiles compared to more active boys, potentially leading to variations in how physical exercise affects their social-emotional competence. From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, males face greater competition and challenges in order to reproduce⁶³, which is crucial for developing psychological resilience. When confronted with difficulties and setbacks in physical exercise, boys may be more inclined to persevere, maintain a positive and optimistic attitude, and better regulate their emotions and behaviors. Additionally, this phenomenon may also be attributed to different parent-child interaction patterns³⁶. Relevant research indicates that parents are more likely to teach boys problem-solving skills, whereas they only teach girls when they perceive a clear deficiency in certain abilities⁶⁴.

In addition, this study reveals that boys with low physical exercise levels tend to have lower social-emotional competence scores. This may be attributed to the limited opportunities they have to enjoy the benefits of physical exercise. Physical exercise not only improves physical health but also positively impacts mental health and social skill development. It can enhance social-emotional learning capacities, such as self - regulation, social skills, and emotional knowledge⁶⁵. Research has demonstrated that implementing social-emotional learning programs can significantly boost students’ emotional literacy, social skills, and academic behavior while reducing social problems and anxiety⁶⁵. Furthermore, physical activity is closely linked to children’s cognitive abilities and health behaviors. Studies have found that children with higher physical activity levels often perform better in conceptual and language skills and have better cardiopulmonary fitness⁶⁶. This suggests physical activity can enhance social-emotional competence by improving cognitive function and social interaction. To sum up, the lower social-emotional competence scores in boys with low levels of physical exercise might be due to a lack of the social interaction and mental health benefits that physical exercise brings. Increasing participation in physical exercise could help to enhance their social-emotional competence and overall mental health⁶⁷.

Simultaneously, the study also revealed that, compared to boys, girls’ peer attachment has a stronger impact on social-emotional competence. This may be related to females’ higher empathy⁶⁸. In interpersonal interactions, girls are more capable of understanding and caring for others, which helps them enhance interpersonal skills and a sense of responsibility, and establish deep attachment relationships with peers, thereby promoting the development of social-emotional competence. An increasing number of studies have shown that females are more skilled than males in the emotional domain, including interpreting emotions from facial expressions and non-verbal cues, using emotional vocabulary, and emotional memory³⁶. These skills enable girls to better understand and respond to others’ emotional needs in peer attachment, resulting in higher levels of social-emotional competence. Additionally, research indicates that girls are more willing to share their feelings and experiences with peers, a form of emotional expression that strengthens peer attachment⁶⁸. Through this deep level of emotional exchange, girls gain more psychological resources, thereby demonstrating stronger adaptability and emotional regulation abilities when facing social challenges.

Research implications

The primary school years represent a critical period during which children’s social-emotional competencies gradually develop from lower to higher levels. First, this study found that physical exercise can directly influence the social-emotional competencies of primary school children. For schools, it is essential to offer a full range of physical education classes and ensure that students have sufficient time for physical exercise each week. Physical education teachers should integrate social - emotional competence development into their teaching. They need to create course modules with basic motor skills, cooperative games, and role rotation, enabling students to boost both physical abilities and social skills. Also, designing family - oriented physical challenges can engage parents, helping them recognize the social - emotional benefits of exercise. Establishing teacher - parent communication channels, like sharing students’ social performance at school and home via observation sheets, can help identify students needing intervention.

Second, peer attachment mediates the impact of physical exercise on the social-emotional competencies of primary school children. This finding suggests that when guiding students in physical exercise, teachers should design as many team-based projects and group competitions as possible, encourage mutual support and cooperation among students, foster a spirit of teamwork and mutual assistance, and strengthen attachment relationships among students. Organizing more cooperative sports, like relays and team ball games, can strengthen students’ mutual understanding and trust. Parents should monitor their child’s peer interactions, invite friends over, or involve them in community activities to foster good peer relationships and enhance attachment.

Finally, the mediating effect of peer attachment on the impact of physical exercise on social-emotional competencies, as well as the direct path, is moderated by gender. This result indicates that schools and teachers need to adopt different strategies to enhance the social-emotional competencies of students of different genders. For example, schools and teachers can introduce sports activities that are highly entertaining and less competitive to encourage female students to actively participate and increase their engagement in physical exercise. In classes, physical education teachers should focus on girls’ emotional experiences, creating a warm and supportive environment. Parents need to encourage girls to participate in diverse sports to build confidence and social skills. For male students, teachers can use post-class summary sessions to guide them in sharing their experiences and achievements, allow students to take on different roles, experience the feelings and needs of others, and enhance their empathy and social skills. For boys, teachers can arrange strategic, cooperative competitions to develop teamwork and communication. Parents should offer more sports opportunities and encourage interaction with various peers to broaden their social circles. Physical education teachers can organize strategic and cooperative sports competitions for boys to foster their team spirit and communication skills. Parents should offer more exercise opportunities and encourage interactions with diverse peers to expand their social circles, thereby enhancing their social - emotional competence.

Conclusion

1. Physical exercise directly and positively associated with social-emotional competence in primary school children.

2. Peer attachment partially mediates the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence in primary school children.

3. Gender moderates both the direct effect of physical exercise on social-emotional competence and the latter half of the mediating effect of peer attachment on social-emotional competence. That is, the impact of physical exercise on social-emotional competence in primary school children is characterized by a moderated mediation effect.

Research limitations and perspectives

1. The present study selected only six primary schools in Hunan Province, limiting the scope of the sample. The study focused exclusively on students in grades 3 to 6, failing to include a broader age range. Given that regional sociocultural contexts, family environments, and age can differentially impact social-emotional competence in primary school children, the limited sample size may affect the generalizability of the findings. Future research should expand the sample to include schools from diverse regions and students from different age groups to enhance the scientific rigor and generalizability of the results.

2. Uncontrolled confounding variables, such as family economic status, parental education levels, and school environment, may have influenced the social-emotional competence of primary school children in this study. Future research could employ multivariate statistical analysis methods, such as structural equation modeling or mixed-effects models, to control for these confounding variables and more accurately assess the relationships between variables.

3. Although the study found that gender moderates the relationship between physical exercise and social-emotional competence, the specific mechanisms underlying this moderating effect were not explored. Future research could use interviews, observations, and experimental methods to examine differences in boys’ and girls’ participation in physical exercise, types of sports activities, peer interactions, and how these differences influence the development of social-emotional competence.

Author contributions

P.W. and X.G. designed the study and written the original manuscript. X.C. revised the manuscript. C.S. collected and analyzed the data. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Office for Education Sciences Planning (CLA230300).

Data availability

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.