Table 2.

Production of osmoprotectants by bacteria.

Osmoprotectant	Microorganism producing	Substrate	Concentration	References
Amine, amino acids, and their derivatives
Proline	Bacillus licheniformis NJ04	LB nutrient broth	32.31 mg/g	James and Umesh ()
	B. subtilis	OpuE	∼60 mg/l	Hoffmann et al. (2012)
	Halobacillus halophilus	Salt medium (G10) containing 1% glucose	6.18 μM/mg of protein	Saum and Müller (2007)
	Pseudoalteromonas phenolica KCTC 3208	Marine broth	∼2500 μM	Song et al. (2020)
Alanine	B. subtilis JH642 and DRB30	Spizizen’s minimal medium	239 and 207 mM	Zaprasis et al. (2015)
	Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenboroug	Lactate sulfate medium	17.53 µM/mg dry weight	He et al. (2010b)
	Rhizobium strains RlF16 and Rch60	Mannitol–aspartate–salts medium	95 and 146 nM/mg of proteins	Bouhmouch et al. (2001)
Arginine	B. subtilis DRB 17	Spizizen’s minimal medium	2.5 mM	Zaprasis et al. (2015)
Pipercolic acid	Brevibacterium ammoniagenes ATCC 6872	M63 minimal medium	130 µM/mg dry weight	Gouesbet et al. (1992)
	Corynebacterium glutamicum	Glucose-minimal medium	30 μg/g CDW h	Pérez-García et al. (2019)
Citruline	B. subtilis DRB17	Spizizen’s minimal medium	237 mM	Zaprasis et al. (2015)
Glutamate	Arthrobacter globiformis	Czapek medium	25.58 mg/g cells	Komarova et al. (2002)
	Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenboroug	Lactate sulfate medium	82.82 µM/mg dry weight	He et al. (2010b)
	Rhodococcus erythropolis E-15	Czapek medium	35.14 mg/g cells	Komarova et al. (2002)
Asparagine	Arthrobacter globiformis	Czapek medium	1.22 mg/g cells	Komarova et al. (2002)
	Rhodococcus erythropolis E-15	Czapek medium	1.90 mg/g cells	Komarova et al. (2002)
Carnitine	E. coli 044 K74	Minimal medium	0.5 M	Cánovas et al. (2007)
Quaternary ammonium
Hydroxy proline	B. subtilis	Marine broth	2.9 µM/g—dry weight	Kim et al. (2017)
	Halobacillus halophilis	Marine broth	188.7 µM/g—dry weight
	Pseudomonas stutzeri	Marine broth	0.8 µM/g—dry weight
	Virgbacillus pantothenicus	Marine broth	27.2 µM/g—dry weight
Glycine betaine	Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803	BG11 medium	64.29 µM/g—dry weight (1.89 µM/mg protein)	Ferreira et al. (2021)
β-alanine betaine	B. subtilis PanDE56S	Glucose	236.15 mg/l culture	Perchat et al. (2022)
Tertiary sulphonium
DMSP (dimethylsulfoniopropionate)	Gynuella sunshinyii YC6258	MBM medium, MTHB	177.42 ± 3.2 pmol/μg protein/h	Wang et al. (2024)
Sugar
Sucrose	Synechococcus elongatus UTEX 2973	BG11 medium	1.9 g/l day	Streeter (2003), Hagemann (2011)
Trehalose	Brevibacterium sp. SY361	Glucose, polypeptone, KH2PO4, MgSO4 × 7 H2O	12.2 mg/ml	Wang et al. (2008)
	E. coli	M9	1.7 g/l	Li et al. (2012)
Fructants
Mannitol	Lactobacillus brevis 3-A5	Jerusalem artichoke extract	176.50 g/l	Cao et al. (2018)