Table 2.
Characteristics of included studies.
| Study, authors (year) | Country | Percentage of patients | Gender (Male/Female) | N (Treatment/Control) | Level of education (years) | Course of disease | Cognitive status | Chronic disease | Treatment group | Control group | Age (mean) | Cognitive status | Disease assessment tool | Description of interventions | Duration of exposure | Adverse events | acquisition time (months) | Outcome of symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grzenda 2024 (5) | USA | SCD | / | 40/39 | 16.15 ± 1.90/15.72 ± 1.99 | / | / | / | Kundalini yoga training | Memory enhancement training | 65.45 (9.11)/67.54 (9.30) | MMSE ≤ 23 | Self-reported subjective cognitive decline | Kundalini Yoga intervention integrates a structured session of multisensory engagement with daily home practice | For 12 weeks, receive 60-min in-person lessons weekly from a certified KY instructor. | No | 0/3/6 | BDI, CD-RISC, HAM-A, MFQ, SF-36, CVRF |
| Larouche, E 2018 (32) | Canada | aMCI | 23/22 | 23/22 | 13.8 ± 2.8/14.1 ± 3.3 | / | / | / | Kabat-Zinn’s MBSR | Psychoeducation-based intervention; | 71.4 (7.7)/70.5 (5.6) | / | MoCA; Cognitive Questionnaire | Engage in different mindfulness exercises each week, as detailed in the article | Participants were asked to complete at-home formal meditation practices 6 days a week for 8 weeks in addition to daily informal practices | NA | 0/3 | GDS-30; GAI-20; WHOQOL-Brief-; FFMQ-22; RRS |
| Domingo J 2014 (50) | Spain | AD | 54/66 | 30/30/30/30 | Unfinished Primary Studies (3 years): 73/Primary Studies (6 years): 17/High school (12 years): 21/University (15 years): 9 | 1y: 9; 2–3y: 43; 4–5y: 35; >6y: 33 | 17.00 ± 0.89/16.00 ± 0.93 | / | MBSR+UC | CRT/Progressive muscle Relaxation/UC | / | MMSE ≥ 18 | DSM-IV criteria | Kirtan Kriya technique: 1. Temporal and spatial orientation; 2. Yoga in the chair; 3. Attention-to-breathing exercise; 4. Body scan; 5. Kirtan Kriya; 6. Guided min dful attention to one of the five senses for 10 min; 7. Psychoeducation on AD | Three weekly group sessions of 90 min for 2 years and a total of 288 sessions in 96 weeks | NA | 0/24 | MMSE; CAMCOG |
| Churcher 2017 (33) | USA | Cognitive impairment (Mild [3]/Moderate [28]) | 16/15 | 20/11 | / | / | 15.85 ± 3.68/14.45 ± 4.28 | / | MAP+UC | UC | 81.30 (9.29)/79.36 (9.91) | MMSE > 18 | DSM-IV criteria | Daily home practice (10-Minute Mindful Breathing practice and/or a briefer, 3-Minute Breathing Space) | Twice a week for 5 weeks | No | 0/1.25 | CSDD; RAID; QOL-AD; MMSE; PSS-13; MBAS |
| Kim E 2021 (34) | USA | MCI | 11/29 | 20/20 | 12 years (High school) or less: (4/3); 13–15 years (some college) (6/5); 16+ years (college): (10/12) | / | / | Diabetes (6/3); hypertension (11/7); high cholesterol (7/5); depression (5/2); anxiety (4/3) | Kirtan Kriya | Health education | 66.85 (2.14)/61.45 (1.38) | SCD criteria | KK includes a repeated Kirtan or song (singing repetition of the ‘Sa-Ta-NaMa’ mantra) a mudra or physical/motor component (Touching each fingertip to the thumb in sequence with the chant) | 12 min daily for 12 weeks (84 practice sessions total) | No | 3 | MFQ; PSQI; SF-36; QOL | |
| K. Milbury 2013 (35) | USA | Cognitive dysfunction after chemotherapy | / | 23/24 | / | M: 35.0 ± 14.6/34.33 ± 14.6 | / | / | Tibetan Sound Meditation | Wait list control | 53.0 (6.6)/54.1 (8.6) | MMSE ≤ 23 | FACT-Cogw | TSM program consists of two main components as follows: (i) breathing; (ii) visualization and sound exercises. | Two weeks | No | 0/1 | FACT-Cog; CES-D; PSQI; BFI; SF-36 |
| Harris A 2016 (37) | USA | MCI | 27/52 | 38/41 | / | / | 23.9 ± 2.6/24.2 ± 1.7/24.5 ± 1.6 | / | Kundalini yoga | Memory enhancement training program | 68.1 (8.7)/67.6 (8.0) | MMSE > 24 | CDR | (1) tuning in; (2) warm up; (3) breath techniques “Pranayama”; (4) KK; (5) meditation; (6) rest “Shavasana” and closing | Daily 12-min, 60-min per week, and 12 weeks | No | 0/3/6 | CDR; HVLT; WMS; GDS, AES, CDSC |
| Piyanee 2019 (48) | Singapore | MCI | 14/41 | 28/27 | No degree: (15/20); Primary School: (6/3); Secondary School or ITE: (3/4); Pre-university or Polytechnic: (1/-) University: (2/-) Missing: (1/-) | / | 24.61 ± 3.2/24.70 ± 3.89 | No chronic health problems (23/22); Visual impairment (3/5); Hearing and visual impairment (1/-); Visual and other impairment (1/-) | MBSR | Health Education | 71.26 (5.63)/71.44 (5.97) | / | DSM-IV criteria | The instructors guided the participants to engage in various mindfulness awareness practice techniques: (a) mindfulness of the senses practice; (b) body scan practice; (c) walking meditation practice; (d) movement nature meant practice; (e) Visuo-motor limb tasks, which train the participants in mind–body coordination. | Sessions were conducted weekly for the first 3 months and monthly for the remaining 6 months | NA | 0/3/9 | GDS-15; GAI-20; MMSE CDR |
| Natalie L 2021 (38) | UK | SCD | 52/95 | 73/74 | 13.9 ± 3.8/13.4 ± 3.4 | / | 28.7 ± 1.2/28.9 ± 1.0 | / | MBSR | Health Education | 72.1 (7.6)/73.3 (6.2) | / | Criteria for SCD | Building on modifications suggested by Zellner Keller et altogether with a focus on compassion and loving-kindness meditation | Approximately an hour a day, 6 days a week | Twenty-five adverse events were recorded in the trial (CMBAS: 18; HSMP: 7), and 5 of them were considered serious adverse events | 0/2/6 | State-STAI; GDS-15 |
| Cai 2022 (46) | China | MCI | 19/56 | 38/37 | Primary school (4/4); Lower secondary school (4/8); Higher secondary school (19/16); high school (11/9) | / | 26.00 (25.00–27.00)/26.00 (25.00–27.50) | Insomnia (9/7) | MBSR | Health Education | 80 (8)/80 (10.8) | MMSE: 24 ~ 30 | 2018 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Dementia and Cognitive Disorders in China | Participants were given a “Walkman” and asked to do 10–45 min of mindfulness practice and homework | 1.5 h once a week, for eight courses. | both groups with no deaths or serious adverse events | 0/2 | Global PSQI; MoCA; VFT; GDS-30; PSS; SAS; MMSE, STT, ISI, AIS, PSS, AVLT, SDMT |
| Domingo J 2022 (9) | Spain | AD | 54/66 | 30/30/30/30 | / | / | / | / | Mindfulness-based Alzheimer’s Stimulation+UC | Usual caretaking-at-home group | / | DSM-5 | Mindfulness-based Alzheimer’s Stimulation | Three weekly sessions over years | NA | 6/12/18/24 | GDS-15; HDRS; NPQ | |
| Ted 2022 (10) | Singapore | MCI | 14/41 | 28/27 | 5.19 (4.94)/3.44 (4.27) | / | 24.59 (3.30)/24.70 (3.89) | / | MAP+UC | Health Education | 71.89 (5.94)/70.67 (6.18) | / | DSM-IV criteria | MAP techniques involved: 1) Mindfulness of the senses practice; 2) mindful breathing with body scan practice; 3) movement nature where participants were taught to move with awareness for flexibility, strength and confidence; 4) Visuomotor coordination tasks which trained them in mind–body coordination and lastly; 5) Mindful stretching which aimed to relax their muscles in a mindful manner. | Weekly for 3 months and monthly for the subsequent 6 months | No | 0/3/9/60 | GDS-15; GAI-20; MMSE-30 |
| Enas 2019 (49) | Egypt | MCI | 29/21 | 24/26 | Literate (9/15); intermediate education (10/7); high education (5/4) | / | / | / | MBCT | UC | 60–65: 14/17; 65–70: 10/19 | / | DSM-IV criteria | MBI consists two parts: 1) sessions concerned with mindfulness meditation practice as sitting meditation, body scan, and walking meditation; 2) sessions emphasized on cognitive stimulation training and memory strategy | Meditation exercise at home for 10 and 30 min, 12 sessions of training program | NA | / | MoCA; PSS; PSQI |
| Z. Jiayuan2022 (45) | China | Cognitive frailty | 37/54 | 30/31/31 | / | / | / | / | MBCT | Tai Chi Chuan/Mindfulness-based Tai Chi Chuan | / | CDR | Four basic forms of meditation practices (body scan, walking meditation, gentle yoga, sitting meditation) | Training for 3 months. | NA | 0/6/12 | CDR; MMSE-30; TUG; 30-s chair test; SPBB | |
| Kinjal 2021 (31) | Singapore | MCI | 34/42 | 32/27/17 | Education (<6 y): 3 | 26.19 ± 2.73/26.37 ± 3.30 | / | MBCT | CRT/UC | 67.6 (5.3)/67.1 (3.4)/66.3 (6.7) | MMSE >20 | DSM-V | Participants in the intervention delivered in a group setting and engaged in home practice | 8 weekly 2 h sessions | NA | 0/2 | MMSE-30; MoCA-30; GDS-15; MAAS | |
| Kim E 2016 (36) | USA | SCD | 9/51 | 30/30 | >12: (3/7); post-high school education (4/11); years of college or more (23/12) | / | / | Diabetes (6/3); hypertension (11/7); high cholesterol (7/5); depression (5/2); anxiety (4/3) | Kirtan Kriya | Music listening program | 60.93 (1.56)/60.23 (1.32) | / | SCD criterial | KK program is a multifaceted exercise which engages several areas of the brain. Participants in the intervention delivered in a group setting and engaged in home practice | 12 min daily for 12 weeks | No | 0/3/6.5 | PSS; SF-36; MFQ; PSQI; |
| Kim E 2019 (14) | USA | SCD | 7/46 | 25/28 | Education ≥ 12 y (22/21) | / | / | / | Kirtan Kriya | Music listening program | 60.71 (1.38)/60.20 (1.63) | / | MCI criteria | KK program is a multifaceted exercise which engages several areas of the brain. Participants in the intervention delivered in a group setting and engaged in home practice | 12 min daily for 12 weeks | No | 0/3 | PSS; SF-36; MFQ; PSQI |
| Rafał 2023 (51) | Czech Republic | MCI | 7/13 | 12/8 | 14.08 ± 3.08/14.63 ± 2.45 | / | 27.26.82 ± 1.72/27.86 ± 1.36 | / | MBSR | CRT | 73.83 (7.04)/74.25 (7.25) | / | Diagnosis of MCI | Both formal (body scan, sitting meditation, mindful movement, working with difficulties, meditation with imagination, etc.) and informal practices (bringing mindfulness to routine activities, including short breathing meditation, an analysis of pleasant and unpleasant events and stressful communication, etc.) | 8 weekly sessions (2.5 h long) and 1 “retreat in silence” day (6 h long) | NA | 0/2/6 | Memory Score PVLT, COWAT-FAS; GDS-15; BAI |
| Mao 2016 (44) | China | AD | 140/74 | 107/107 | Missing: (9/12); primary school: (24/19); secondary school: (74/76) | Y: 2.42 ± 1.44/2.66 ± 1.58 | 18.96 ± 3.24/19.24 ± 3.35 | / | MBSR | UC | 73.24 (2.12)/72.86 (2.31) | MMSE: 10–26 | DSM-IV | Specifically, the routine includes: 1. Body scan; 2. Mindful breathing; 3. Zen sitting; 4. Raisin exercise; 5. Mountain peak meditation; 6. Review of the aforementioned practices. | Three times a day, once in the morning, once in the afternoon, and once in the evening, each session lasting about 30 min. a total of 6 weeks. | NA | 0/1.5 | MMSE; WMS; MCQ-30; FAQ |
| Zhao 2022 (43) | China | AD | 42/54 | 48/48 | / | / | 20.15 ± 3.49/20.36 ± 3.32 | / | MBSR+ Chinese medicine | UC | 73.16 (4.57)/72.79 (4.61) | MMSE: <27 | 2018 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Dementia and Cognitive Disorders in China | Specifically, the routine includes: 1. Body scan; 2. Mindful breathing; 3. Mountain peak meditation | 1 h each time, 2 times a week; It lasts for 3 months. | NA | 0/3 | MMSE-30; CAMCOG |
| Liu 2020 (42) | China | AD | 86/100 | 93/93 | Primary School and missing: (48/48); Secondary School: (33/31); University: (12/14) | 4.15 ± 1.62/4.06 ± 1.77 | / | / | MBCT+UC | UC | 70.25 (3.36)/69.95 (3.58) | / | 2018 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Dementia and Cognitive Disorders in China | Participants in the intervention delivered in a group setting and engaged in home practice | Once a week for 120 min each time for 8 weeks | NA | 0/2 | MMSE-30; QOL-AD |
| Deirdre 2023 (39) | UK | Mild Dementia | 5/15 | 10/10 | 11.40 ± 2.50/12.1 ± 2.52 | / | 25.50 ± 3.17/23.50 ± 3.50 | / | MBCT+UC | UC | 77.80 (10.63)/76.80 (4.96) | / | DSM-IV | Participants in the intervention delivered in a group setting and engaged in home practice | Once a week for 90 min each time for 8 weeks | No | 0/2 | CSDD; PHQ-9; RAID; GAD-7; QOL-AD; MMSE-30 |
| Zhu 2020 (47) | China | MCI | 10/58 | 34/34 | All participants have at least a junior high school education | 1.87 ± 0.74/1.76 ± 0.86 | 13.26 ± 1.66/13.62 ± 1.81 | / | MBSR+CRT | CRT | 53.82 (4.92)/53.74 (4.95) | MMSE ≤ 24 | MMSE | Participants in the intervention delivered in a group setting and engaged in home practice | Once a week for 8 weeks | NA | 0/2 | MMSE-30; HDS; ADL |
| Tan 2019 (41) | China | AD | 130/134 | 132/132 | / | 2.4 ± 2.3/2.2 ± 2.9 | 19 ± 4/20 ± 4 | MBCT | CRT | 72.4 (2.2)/72.6 (2.3) | / | AD | Avoid other distractions during 1. meditation; 2. to keep the patient comfortable.3. Zezen 4. Nasal breathing; 5. maintain a relaxed attitude to external interference; 6. Training with less than 68 dB of yoga music and professional instructions. | Three times a day for 8 weeks | NA | 0/2 | MMSE; MCQ-30 | |
| Wang 2019 (40) | China | AD | 33/27 | 30/30 | / | / | 20.10 ± 2.47/20.32 ± 2.15 | / | MBCT+ Aerobic exercise | Aerobic exercise | 74.8 (5.4)/75.6 (4.2) | MMSE: 10–24 | DSM-IV | Participants in the intervention delivered in a group setting and engaged in home practice | Once a week, 1.5–2 h each time, a total of 8 weeks | NA | 0/2/4 | MMSE-30; NPI; ADAS-cog |
AD, Alzheimer’s Disease; aMCI, Amnestic mild cognitive impairment; CRT, Cognitive rehabilitation therapy; UC, Usual care; SCD, Subjective Cognitive Decline; MBSR, Mindfulness-based stress reduction; MBI, Mindfulness-based interventions; MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment; GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale; GAI, Geriatric Anxiety Inventory; WHOQOL-Brief, World Health Organization Quality of Life Brief scale; RRS, Ruminative Response Scale; FFMQ, Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire; WMS, Wechsler Memory scale; PROMISP, Patient-Reported Outcome Measurement Information System; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination, CDS, Clinical Dementia Rating; ADAS-cog, Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale, cognitive subscale; CDR, Clinical Dementia Rating QOL, Quality of life; DSM-IV, The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; CDSS, Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia; RAID, Rating Anxiety in Dementia Scale; PSS, Perceived Stress Scale; MBAS, Meditation Breath Attention Scores; MFQ, Memory Functioning Questionnaire; PSQI, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; PWBS, Psychological Well-Being Scale; SF-36, Short Form-36; FACT, Function - Cognitive Function Scale; TSM, Tibetan Sound Meditation; HVLT, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; State-STAI, State–trait anxiety inventory; VFT, Verbal Fluency Test; Auditory Verbal Learning Test; Shape Trail Test; Symbol Digit Modalities Test; OWAT, Oral Word Association Test; APS, Apathy Evaluation Scale; CDSC, Connor–Davidson resilience scale; SPBB, Short Physical Performance Battery.