Table 2.

Table depicting the studies explaining prognostic role of GDF-15 in CKM.

Study	What the Study Aimed to Assess	Results
Wang et al., 2023 [111]	Can GDF-15 levels predict cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality in patients with stable coronary artery disease, independently of traditional risk factors and other biomarkers?	GDF-15 levels are predictive of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality in patients with stable coronary artery disease. GDF-15 provides prognostic information independent of other biomarkers. GDF-15 could enhance risk prediction models for clinical events in secondary prevention for patients with stable CAD.
Kopystya et al., 2016 [112]	What is the association between serum GDF-15 levels and the diagnosis, risk stratification, and prognosis of cardiovascular diseases?	Patients with ACS and T2DM had a higher prevalence of cardiovascular diseases and risk factors, with significantly elevated GDF 15 levels in those with a history of T2DM.
Bao et al., [113]	What is the role of serum GDF-15 levels in the diagnosis, risk stratification, and prognosis of cardiovascular diseases?	The association between GDF-15 and diabetes risk was more pronounced in individuals without impaired fasting glucose and in those who were ≤60 years old at baseline.
Shin et al., 2016 [114]	What is the relation of GDF-15 to cardiovascular outcomes and how can it be used as a biomarker in cardiovascular disease?	Serum GDF 15 levels were significantly elevated in diabetic and prediabetic groups compared to controls, positively correlated with Framingham Risk Score, suggesting its potential as a clinical biomarker for cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes.
Kempf et al., 2012 [115]	What is the association between growth differentiation factor-15 and cardiovascular diseases?	Baseline GDF-15 levels were predictive of future prediabetes or diabetes and insulin resistance in obese nondiabetic individuals.
Na et al., 2017 [108]	Does Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) serve as a predictor of adverse renal outcomes in patients with immunoglobulin A nephropathy?	GDF -15 has been identified as a useful prognostic marker in patients with chronic inflammatory disease and heart disease.