Table 3.

Comparison of fabrication methods for plant protein-based packaging materials.

Fabrication method	Key features	Advantages	Challenges/Limitations	Application
Solution Casting	Solution preparation, casting, thickness, drying	Simple setup, good for additive incorporation, uniform films and applicable for batch process	Not scalable, batch process, long drying times, limited dimensions	Research films, formulation optimization
Extrusion	Heat, shear, pressure processing via screw extruders	High scalability, continuous process, versatile film formation (blowing, molding, etc.)	Requires precise control over process parameters; high setup cost	Films, trays, containers
Coating	Dipping, spraying, layer-by-layer, fluidized bed	Direct food contact, enhances shelf life, low material usage (spraying)	Poor water barrier, limited to surface layer applications	Edible coatings, perishable food wrapping
3D Printing	Additive manufacturing using bio inks, layer by layer formation	Customizable designs, accurate control, automated	High moisture sensitivity, protein plasticizer compatibility, low material diversity	Functional films, smart packaging system
Electrospinning	High voltage electric field creates ultrafine protein fibers	High surface area, tunable properties, nanostructured films	Poor spinnability of many plant proteins, often requires polymer blending	Bioactive films, smart/active packaging
Injection Molding	High pressure injection of molten material into molds	Mass production, precise shaping, reusable molds	Process optimization needed, limited to rigid packaging	Cups, trays, cutlery
Compression Molding	Sheets pressed between heated molds under pressure	Suitable for water insoluble proteins, uniform thickness	Less detailed than injection molding, energy intensive	Plates, trays, containers