Table 2.
Emerging biomarkers associated with circadian dysregulation in CVD.
| Biomarker | Mechanism of Action | Status | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) | Circadian-regulated protein involved in fibrinolysis; elevated levels during circadian misalignment promote thrombosis. | Identified as circadian regulated, under investigation. | McHill et al. (2024) |
| Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor (TFPI) | Reduced during circadian misalignment, contributing to hypercoagulable states and increased cardiovascular risk. | Under investigation. | McHill et al. (2024) |
| Coagulation Factor VII | Exhibits 24-h rhythmicity; altered levels during circadian misalignment may increase coagulation risk. | Under investigation. | McHill et al. (2024) |
| BloodCCD | Measures circadian clock disruption through RNA-sequencing of 42 clock-regulated genes in blood samples. | Clinical trials for circadian dysfunction detection. | Altman et al. (2022) |
| miRNAs (e.g., QSOX1, LIPCAR, MICRA) | Circadian variations in miRNA expression reflect inflammatory and metabolic changes linked to cardiovascular disease. | Investigational biomarkers for CAD and heart failure. | Vanhaverbeke et al. (2022) |
| Nicotinamide Phosphoribosyl transferase (NAMPT) | Regulates NAD + biosynthesis; circadian oscillations influence energy metabolism and cardiovascular homeostasis. | Preclinical studies. | Acosta-Rodríguez et al. (2021) |
| TimeTeller (Wearable Device Output) | Non-invasive monitoring of circadian rhythm outputs like body temperature and heart rate for personalized diagnostics. | Emerging tool; under evaluation. | Dose et al. (2023) |
| ARNTL, CRY2, BHLHE41, NPAS2 | Circadian rhythm-related hub genes that serve as biomarkers for diagnosis and treatment of heart failure | Under investigation. | Sun et al. (2023) |
| C-Reactive Protein, IL-6 | Pro-inflammatory markers linked to increased oxidative stress and disrupted circadian rhythms, upregulated in shift workers | Under investigation. | Wong et al. (2023) |
| Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, Angiopoietin-2, Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-4, Follistatin-related protein-3, and Endoplasmic reticulum resident protein-29 | Circadian regulated proteins associated decreased tissue factor pathway inhibitor and increased tissue factor within the coagulation pathway during circadian misalignment; promote hypercoagulative state. | Under investigation. | McHill et al. (2024) |