Table 2.

The mechanisms of action and functionalities of rhodium-based nanoparticles in tumor treatment.

Type of nanoplatform	Material	Treatment method	In vitro and in vivo antitumor efficacy	Mechanism of action	Ref.
Inorganic nanoparticles	Magh-Rh2(H2cit)4	Chemotherapy	4T1 tumor-bearing mice (TIR: 75 %)	Inducing necrosis and fibrosis in tumor tissues, while inhibiting cell proliferation and microvascularization	[65]
Inorganic nanoparticles	MRC NPs	Chemotherapy	MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231	Inducing the S phase cell-cycle arrest by activation of p53-mediated DNA damage response	[66]
Inorganic nanoparticles	Porous Rh nanoplates	PTT	HeLa tumor-bearing mice	Inducing tumor growth inhibition and cancer cell death	[67]
Inorganic nanoparticles	Rh-PEG NDs	PTT/PA imaging	Complete ablation of CT-26 tumor and anti-inflammatory effect in colitis	Exhibiting RONS scavenging and photothermal properties for simultaneous anti-inflammation and antitumor theranostics	[68]
Inorganic nanoparticles	RhNPs	PDT	HeLa cells	Generating ROS and inducing apoptosis via inhibition of key anti-apoptotic proteins and the over-expression of HSP32	[69]
Inorganic nanoparticles	Ce6-Rh@MPDA	PTT and PDT/PA and fluorescence imaging	4T1 tumor-bearing mice	Alleviating tumor hypoxia and enabling the synergistic antitumor treatment using PTT and PDT	[71]
Inorganic nanoparticles	IGU-Rh-PD-1 NVs	Chemotherapy, PTT, and Immunotherapy	LLC tumor-bearing mice	Inhibiting mTOR phosphorylation, improving ROS-dependent apoptosis, and reducing EMT- mediated migration	[72]
Inorganic nanoparticles	Au@Rh-ICG-CM	PTT and PDT/PA and fluorescence imaging	MDA-MB-231 tumor-bearing mice	Modulating hypoxic tumor microenvironment and improving PDT therapeutic efficiency	[76]
MOFs	RhI-DOX@ZIF-90	Chemotherapy/fluorescence imaging	HCT116 tumor-bearing mice	Fluorescent detect of ATP in tumor mice and controlled release of anticancer drug by mitochondrial administration	[81]
Polymeric micelles	2/5-PN	Chemotherapy/NIR-II phosphorescence imaging	Bel-7404-tumor-bearing nude mice	NIR-II phosphorescence imaging with a long-circulating time via Rh(I)···Rh(I)/π–π stacking interactions	[90]
Micelles	Rh-As/FBS	NIR-II phosphorescence imaging	RAW264.7 cell, acute inflammation mouse model	Tracking single-macrophage dynamics and high-contrast time-resolved in vivo imaging	[91]
Polymeric micelles	EARh-1 nanorods	Chemotherapy/NIR phosphorescence imaging	4T1-tumor-bearing nude mice	Accumulating at the tumor for in vivo NIR phosphorescence imaging and tumor killing	[92]