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. 2025 Jun 4;16:1608031. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2025.1608031

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Copyright © 2025 Chen, Cheng, Pan, Yao, Chen, Fu and Pan.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Altered metabolic profiles between patients with PD and HCs. (A) OPLS-DA score plot. ESI (+): positive ion mode, R²X = 0.599, R²Y = 0.967, Q² = 0.927. (B) OPLS-DA score plot. ESI (−): negative ion mode, R²X = 0.115, R²Y = 0.972, Q² = 0.827. (C) Volcano plot of metabolites in the PD group versus the HC group. Red: upregulated metabolite; Blue: downregulated metabolite; Grey: metabolite not meeting the significance thresholds.