ABSTRACT
4D printing is a new evolution of 3D printing that allows materials to alter shape and properties over time or in response to their surroundings. This technique has potential uses in veterinary research, particularly in the development of medical devices for animals, such as prosthetic organs that can adapt to the animal's body or devices that can react to changes in the animal's body environment. 4D printing can also be used to make materials for wound healing and treatment in animals, such as structures that can be shaped based on treatment to promote the best successful recovery. This technology offers a bright future for improving animal care. This review is structured to cover the fundamental principles of 4D printing key applications in veterinary science, including tissue regeneration, custom implants, drug delivery and educational models, and discusses current challenges and future prospects in the field.
Keywords: 4D printing, material, veterinary science
‘The basic nature of 4D object and application in veterinary science’.
1. Introduction
In today's world, 3D printing technology is cutting‐edge. The application in veterinary science is widely accepted around the world (Daungsupawong and Wiwanitkit 2025). Since technology has advanced so swiftly, the next generation of technology, 4D printing, is on the horizon. 4D printing has gained popularity in recent years. 4D printing is a 3D printing process that can change the shape or properties of materials over time and in a specific environment (Khan et al. 2022; Chu et al. 2020). This technology differs from traditional 3D printing in that the printed materials can respond dynamically to environmental forces or changes, such as humidity or temperature (Table 1). This modification opens up a wide range of uses for 4D printing and has the potential to disrupt numerous industries, particularly in medicine and veterinary research.
TABLE 1.
Comparison between 3D and 4D printing technologies.
| Aspects | 3D | 4D |
|---|---|---|
| Definitions | Adds material layer by layer to create static 3D objects | Adds time of stimulus‐responsive functionality to 3D objects |
| Behaviour | Rigid and static after fabrication | Dynamic, can change shape or properties over time via stimuli |
| Response to stimuli | No response | Response |
| Adaptability | Fixed shaper | Adaptive, adjustable based on environmental or physiological condition |
| Biocompatibility | Mostly non‐responsive | Focus on smart biocompatible materials suitable for in vivo use |
| Cost and accessibility | Widely available and relatively affordable | More costly, with limited commercial availability |
| Innovation | Currently established technology | Under active research, cutting‐edge |
| Examples | PLA, ABS, TPU, PETG | Shape memory polymers, hydrogels, liquid crystal elastomers |
In veterinary research, 4D printing can be used to build medical equipment that can adapt to the demands of animals, such as custom prosthetics or artificial organs that can be modified to reflect the animal's growth or changes in physical condition (Khan et al. 2022; Chu et al. 2020). It can also be used to create medical materials that react to the environment in the animal's body, such as wound healing or injury treatment, without having to change the material each time. Thus, 4D printing has the potential to improve the efficacy of animal treatment.
4D printing technology can also help advance animal health rehabilitation by creating materials that can respond to changing conditions in the animal's body, such as adapting to the animal's needs at different periods or while the animal is recovering from an illness. 4D printing may make it easier to create medical materials that can be tailored to specific treatment situations, as well as make animal therapy and rehabilitation more efficient and speedy. The advancement of this technology is also worth monitoring for the future of veterinary research.
In our previous work, we discussed the current use of 3D printing technology in veterinary science (Daungsupawong and Wiwanitkit 2025). In this article, we present insights into the emerging field of 4D printing technology.
2. 4D Printing Technology and Its Potential
4D printing is a progression of 3D printing technology that adds a fourth dimension, allowing materials to change form or qualities in response to time or environmental stimuli such as temperature, light or an electric field. This technique has the ability to use materials that respond to their surroundings, resulting in precise adjustments and innovation in a variety of fields, including medicinal materials utilized in 4D printing, polymers that can recall their shape, such as shape memory polymers (SMPs), and materials that respond to light or heat (Khan et al. 2022; Chu et al. 2020).
In medicine, 4D printing technology offers the ability to create medical materials that can be modified based on different conditions within the patient's body, such as developing a drug centre that can adapt to the body environment in order to release a more effective medicine (Khan et al. 2022). Furthermore, 4D printing can be utilized to create artificial organs that adapt appropriately to patients' growing conditions or treatment plans. This will help to reduce the issue of using incorrect materials or being unable to adjust to the therapy (Chu et al. 2020).
The future of 4D printing holds both exciting opportunities and significant challenges, particularly in the development of materials that can respond to multiple types of external stimuli. This includes effective development of technologies capable of printing complex materials that can adapt accurately to various stimuli, which is expected to lead to future advancements in patient care and the development of medical equipment (Antezana et al. 2023).
3. Materials and Stimuli in 4D Printing Technology
4D printing relies on smart materials that can change their shape, structure or properties in response to specific environmental stimuli. The most commonly used materials include hydrogels and liquid crystal elastomers (Khan et al. 2022; Chu et al. 2020). Hydrogels, which swell and contract in response to moisture or pH, are particularly useful for biomedical applications, including veterinary use. Biocompatibility and biodegradability are critical factors in selecting materials for medical and veterinary applications, making materials like polylactic acid (PLA) popular choice. The material allows the creation of responsive structures that can safely interact with animal tissues.
There are a variety of stimuli that can be used to activate the materials, including heat, light, magnet, pH changes and humidity. For example, temperature‐responsive materials expand or contract with body heat, making them ideal for in vivo applications, such as implants and drug delivery systems (Khan et al. 2022; Chu et al. 2020). Light‐activated materials can change shape under specific wavelengths, allowing for remote control of their functionality. In veterinary medicine, these responsive behaviours are particularly useful in the creation of implants and devices that adapt to an animal's physiological state. Before designing a practical 4D printing application, it is essential to understand the interaction between material type and stimulus to ensure compatibility with animal's body and intended therapeutic target (Figures 1 and 2).
FIGURE 1.
Conceptual illustration of the difference between 3D and 4D printing technologies.
FIGURE 2.
Stimuli and properties of 4D objects.
4. Applications of 4D Printing in Veterinary Medicine
4D printing is an improved form of 3D printing that integrates the responsiveness to stimuli and have the potential to transform the animal industry. This is particularly relevant in areas such as tissue formation, rehabilitation medicine and medical organ transplantation, where responsive materials can significantly enhance clinical outcomes. In the veterinarian industry, 4D printing can be used to create equipment that can be adjusted according to the physiological changes of animals over time, such as the use of smart hydrogels, which can respond to external stimuli such as temperature, pH or light, that can change the shape or function according to external stimuli such as temperature or pH value, which can be applied to design biological bands, scaffold of tissue or medication delivery method for veterinarians. This technology has the potential to create an animal implant that can adapt itself to promote recovery or drug release based on the animal's physical condition (El‐Husiny et al. 2021)
Furthermore, the use of 4D printing in animals is regarded as a promising alternative for treating fractured bones or alterations. Implants that can adjust to the animal's growth or change of the animal's physical state for a period of these implants may lessen the need for surgery to alter the implant. These implants can enhance outcomes and lower the long‐term cost of animal care. For example, some studies indicate that bone models are created using plastic fibres such as PLA and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), which are suitable for use in anatomical studies (Kurt et al. 2022).
Furthermore, 4D printing has the potential to transform veterinary education and surgery by developing an anatomical model that mimics the organic structure of animals. This technique can be utilized to create and print very accurate and customizable animal organs and bone models. This will aid with operation planning and practice. Furthermore, these models can be employed in educational settings to facilitate interaction which provides realism.
Recent research demonstrates that a 3D‐printed shoulder models of a sheep, created using PLA and TPU fibres, can effectively simulate bone structure and serve as a valuable tool for teaching anatomical surgery (Hamza et al. 2024).
The integration of 4D printing in veterinary medicine holds great potential for developing materials and devices that can adapt to changing physical conditions in animals. These self‐healing materials can respond to environmental or physiological changes and may be used for wound care or the creation of artificial organs for disabled animals. By designing materials that adjust to an animal's condition over time, it is possible to improve both the effectiveness and longevity of treatments. As 4D printing technology advances, its application in the veterinary field could lead to significant progress in animal care, enabling treatments that are more effective, personalized and flexible (El‐Husiny et al. 2021).
5. Impact of 4D Printing on Animal Health
5.1. Revolutionizing Tissue Regeneration and Healing in Animals
Tissue rehabilitation and wound treatment in animals is one of the major challenges in biological medicine. This is especially important when traditional treatments are unable to effectively meet the complex needs of injured tissues. The development of 3D and 4D printing technologies enables the creation of structures that can respond to external stimuli (EL‐Husseiny et al. 2021). Specific 4D printing technologies enable tissues to respond to physical, chemical and biological stimuli, allowing them to adapt to the animal's environment. This adaptability supports tissue self‐restoration, making treatments more efficient during the rehabilitation process (Shiroud Heidari et al. 2024); (Wang et al. 2024).
In addition to the development of 3D and 4D printing methods, the use of materials that respond to stimuli is an important development in animal tissue rehabilitation. The use of smart materials in 4D printing systems enables the creation of tissues that can change over time or respond to environmental stimuli. For example, hydrogel‐based materials, such as temperature‐ or humidity‐sensitive hydrogels, can adapt their shape or properties in response to these conditions. These materials are especially useful in regenerating inured tissues in animals, offering dynamic and responsive approach to treatment (Liu et al. 2019). These materials are important in various therapy processes, such as the treatment of combustion on the cornea or skin injuries, and have shown improved results when used with stem cells (Iulian et al. 2018).
The development of 3D biological printing that can create a complex tissue is also an important part in restoring bone tissues and cartilage in animals. The use of stem cells in conjunction with 4D printing helps to create a structure that has the ability to respond to the natural revival process of the animal body, such as the treatment of injuries to bones and cartilage (Jiu et al. 2024). This technology enhances the ability to treat complex injuries by not only supporting tissue rehabilitation but also enabling the development of new structures to replace damaged tissues (El‐Husseiny et al. 2021).
In the future, the combination of 4D printing technology with materials that respond to stimuli can enable the creation of materials that are similar to the injured tissue which can adjust the shape and work according to the necessary conditions for animal treatment (Shiroud Heidari et al. 2024). Development in this field will help the tissue rehabilitation process to be done faster and more effective, which will help reduce the burden of treatment that requires a long time and high cost.
Overall, the use of 4D technology and materials that respond to stimuli is a revolution in tissue rehabilitation and wound treatment in animals. These developments will help the rehabilitation process respond to the natural restoration process of the animal body more efficiently and more natural (Wang et al. 2024).
5.2. Customized Implants and Prosthetics for Veterinary Care
Creating implants and custom prosthetics plays an important role in animal care, especially in bone surgery, rehabilitation and therapy of animals from injury. The use of traditional implant is often encountered in support of animal anatomy. In many cases, traditional treatments may not deliver the expected outcomes. However, the emergence of 3D printing technology has transformed the veterinary field by enabling the creation of customizable implants and prosthesis tailored to the unique physical characteristics of each animal, resulting in improved recovery efficiency (Meng et al. 2023).
One of the advantages of customization is that the impact can be better in accordance with the natural bone structure of the animals, which can reduce the stress from the surgery tools used with traditional implants. The beginning of the customization process often uses medical photography techniques such as CT scanning, which will be used to create a digital model that is accurate to the animal body. After that, this model is used to print metal implants that are in size and shape, leading to faster and more effective rehabilitation and recovery (Yarali et al. 2024). In addition, the use of 3D printing technology also helps to use materials that promote the integration of bones and stimulate wound healing, which is important in the long run of bone impact (Meng et al. 2023).
The combination of 4D printing in the animal care process has expanded the scope of its impact to the next level. The 4D printing enhances the ability of the printing material to respond to external stimuli such as heat or moisture, allowing the printing material to change the shape or properties according to the environment that occurs on time. This technology brings an impact that can adapt and respond to changes in the animal body, such as expanding or shrinking to adapt to growth or tissue recovery (Miri et al. 2019). This innovation provides hope. New approach for making meaningful impact in treating animals with bone problems, offering effective and suitable solutions.
In addition to bone applications, custom prostheses for animals have shown significant advancements. Animals that have lost or injured limbs can now receive a specially designed prosthetic device tailored to fit their remaining limbs or unique body structure. These prosthetics not only help restore morbidity but also improve the animal's overall quality of life. The development of 3D printing and biological printing makes these prosthetics accurate, durable and more comfortable than in the past (Taylor et al. 2024). The future of impact and prostheses that are customized for animal care seems to be bright. With the ongoing development of 3D and 4D printing technologies, including progress in biological materials and biological engineering, the animal surgery industry will see more improvements in the results, treatment and after surgery. When animal experts are proficient in using these technologies, the scope of customization for animals will expand, leading to more efficient care and broader accessibility (Li et al. 2020).
5.3. Advancements in Drug Delivery Systems for Veterinary Medicine
Effective drug delivery is a key component of veterinary treatment, especially in the case of specific treatment. The development of the current drug delivery system emphasizes the use of new technology such as 3D and 4D printing in order to be able to customize the format and method of sending drugs to suit each type of animals, which results in more accurate and effective treatment. These developments focus on the use of intelligent materials that can respond to external stimuli such as heat or moisture, which helps to control the release of the drug and animal conditions (Yarali et al. 2024).
Customized drug delivery system using 4D printing technology in animals is very popular because it can create materials that respond to changing environments, such as collapsing or expanding at a specified time, which is a simulation of the animal body rehabilitation process effectively (Yang et al. 2019) in creating a drug delivery system to treat animals, such as the use of the production of stent or drug dispenser through the skin (Md and Kotta 2024).
Another progress in the animal transmitter system is to use 3D and 4D printing technology to create special drugs, such as controlled‐release drugs, which can be adjusted according to the needs of the animal body. This system allows the right amount of drug delivery at the correct time, helps to reduce the risk of receiving overdosing or underdosing, and helps to increase the efficiency of treatment (Yarali et al. 2024). In addition, it also helps to reduce the side effects of the drug by controlling the release of drugs that are suitable for Medical needs of animals (Yang et al. 2019).
In the future, these technologies will continue to develop continuously. The use of 4D technology may play a greater role in the treatment of various diseases such as tissue rehabilitation or bone in injured animals by using a specific drug delivery system that can control the release of drugs to suit the condition of the animal body in each period (Md and Kotta 2024). The use of intelligent materials and designs that have the ability to change the shape according to various stimuli can help to increase the efficiency of treatment greatly and also has the potential to improve the method of sending drugs to suit each animal's medical situation (Yang et al. 2019).
Overall, the progress in the drug delivery system in the animal industry has given new opportunities for future development and improvement. The use of 3D and 4D printing technology to create a genius and customization system has the potential to upgrade the quality of animal treatment. Also, it is expected that in the future we will see the development of these technologies to the next level, which will help the animal care to be more accurate and more effective (Yarali et al. 2024; Md and Kotta 2024).
5.4. Education and Training in Veterinary Medicine Through 4D Models
The study of veterinary science has benefited from new technology, such as 3D and 4D printing, which helps to create realistic models and can be adjusted according to the needs of training and teaching. Veterinarian students can use the model that is printed to study the anatomical structure of animals. Especially for important bone structures like those in sheep, using 3D and 4D models printed with materials like PLA and TPU can enhance the experience in learning (Kurt et al. 2022).
The development of 3D and 4D printing technology makes it possible to create realistic models of animal anatomy, without having to use medical tools such as scanners or MRI machines to create a model. Instead, photography and computer software are used to design 3D models and then these models are printed with various materials such as PLA and TPU, which can simulate the anatomy of animal bones (Kurt et al. 2022).
In research related to the creation of a sheep shoulder robot model, it was found that the model printed from PLA and TPU filament is similar to the actual bone in terms of anatomical structure. There are some differences at some points that measure the model size (Kurt et al. 2022). The model printed from the PLA is more resistant to shocks than the actual bone. The model printed from TPU is highly flexible and is less fragile compared to the PLA and the actual bone. This makes the model printed with TPU suitable for veterinary training that needs to deal with flexible tissues or bones (Kurt et al. 2022).
The use of 3D and 4D models in veterinary training can help to make teaching more efficient because it can create a real and safe environment for training skills, such as surgery and injured bone care, without the need for real bones or the cost of finding real materials (Kurt et al. 2022). The development of these models allows education to be done without using much labour or equipment, helps to reduce the burden of preparing educational materials and provides more diverse experiences.
The use of 4D technology in veterinary studies is likely to grow rapidly in the future. Especially the use of intelligent materials that can respond to external stimuli, such as changing shape according to various stimuli, which will greatly increase the efficiency of training and education. It can also create a model that is suitable for complex learning in each branch of veterinary science, such as rehabilitation of lining or wound treatment in animals (Kurt et al. 2022).
6. Future Prospects and Challenges in 4D Printing for Veterinary Science
4D printing is expected to play an important role in the development of animal treatment technology in the future. Especially in the restoration of tissues and treatment of injured patients, which can create materials that respond to various stimuli, such as heat, light or mechanical force, which is a change in physical characteristics to suit various situations. The use of this technology will help to create an artificial organ that can adjust itself, including the development of drug delivery systems in a form that responds to the needs of the animal body (Khan et al. 2022). There is research that shows the potential to create materials that can be repaired after damage (El‐Husiny et al. 2021).
However, despite the use of 4D printing in science, veterinarians still face many challenges, such as the complexity of material designs that can respond to stimuli. There is also a problem in the cost of production of materials and equipment used in the 4D printing process, which may cause 4D printing not to be widely used today (El‐Husiny et al. 2021). Developing new materials that have mechanical properties suitable for animals with reduced production costs will be an important factor for this technology to be used in the future.
In terms of study, veterinarians associated with 4D printing also have the potential to help develop teaching and learning tools that can adapt to training, such as anatomical models of animals that can simulate symptoms that animals may encounter in real life. It will help veterinary medical students to practice skills better (El‐Husiny et al. 2021). However, using these models in the field of medical also needs additional studies in terms of safety and efficiency in use.
In the future, it is possible that 4D printing may completely change the methods of treating animal patients; especially, the creation of organs that can adapt to the changes in the environment or rehabilitate damaged tissue faster. It can also develop a drug delivery system that responds to animal physical conditions appropriately. The development of this technology also requires additional research about appropriate materials and cost limitations so that 4D printing becomes a technology that can be used in a widespread manner in veterinary field in the future (Khan et al. 2022; El‐Husiny et al. 2021)
7. Overall Impact and Future Integration of 4D Printing in Veterinary Science
The integration of 4D printing in veterinary science signifies a transformative step towards more personalized, adaptive and efficient animal healthcare. Throughout this review, various applications, such as regeneration, drug delivery, prosthetic development and educational tools, have been explored individually. However, what emerges as a unifying theme is the multi‐dimensional benefit of 4D printing technologies across veterinary practice, education and research.
This technology not only allows for the personalization of materials and devices, but it also enables those materials to change in response to the animal's physiological conditions. This leads to more effective long‐term care and rehabilitation. In the future, it is predicted that 4D printing will be integrated into a full care system that includes diagnosis, treatment and monitoring, rather than just standalone applications. As more reactive materials are discovered and production prices fall, 4D printing could be used in normal veterinary care operations. Furthermore, 4D printing will play an increasingly essential role in veterinary education and surgical training.
8. Conclusion
4D printing is a technology with high potential to transform the treatment of animals in various aspects, especially in the development of medical materials that can respond to changes in the animal body (Table 2). The use of 4D printing to create artificial organs that can adapt to growth or treatment, paving the way for the development of more flexible and effective treatments, may make future animal treatments more precise and appropriate.
TABLE 2.
Application of 4D printing technology in veterinary medicine.
| Applications | Details | References |
|---|---|---|
| Creating a skeletal model | Used to study anatomy and veterinarian training, such as bone repair surgery. 4D—printed skeletal models simulate real animal bones with enhanced flexibility and resilience, aiding in surgical training, anatomical study, and planning. | (Kurt et al. 2022), (Hamza et al. 2024) |
| Intelligent materials for transplantation | Used to design artificial organs that can be adjusted, such as bones or artificial joints. Smart materials are used to create adaptive implants, such as artificial bones and joints, which conform to the animal's growth and healing process. | (Chu et al. 2020). (Liu et al. 2019), (El‐Husseiny et al. 2021) |
| Creating a response environment | Used to design a drug delivery system that can respond to stimulating to the treatment of animals. 4D materials can change in response to temperature, pH or moistures, allowing controlled and site—specific drug release, improving treatment precision and reducing side effects. | (Khan et al. 2022), (El‐Husiny et al. 2021), (Yarali et al. 2024). (Yang et al. 2019) |
| Study of rejuvenation | Used in programs for rejuvenating the lining and the treatment of wounds in animals through materials that are modified. Modified hydrogel and biomaterials support cell growth and tissue repair, aiding in wound healing and tissue rejuvenation, often enhanced when combined with stem cell. | (Iulian et al. 2018), (Jiu et al. 2024), (Shiroud Heidari et al. 2024) |
4D printing can also be used to rehabilitate animals from injuries or surgeries by creating materials that can adapt to the environment in the animal's body, such as wound healing or supporting the growth of artificial bones. It can also help reduce the complexity of manufacturing medical devices for animals because the printed materials can respond to treatment dynamically, without needing replacement and manufacturing new devices every time there is a change.
Finally, 4D printing technology is a promising innovation for the future of veterinary science. It can be utilized to develop many types of animal therapy, such as medical equipment, animal rehabilitation and wound treatment, which will assist in improving animal quality of life and raise treatment efficiency in the future. The advancement of this technology will be a significant step towards enhancing the veterinary sector and animal care in all areas.
Author Contributions
Hinpetch Daungsupawong: conceptualization, visualization, writing – review and editing, writing – original draft, validation.
Viroj Wiwanitkit: conceptualization, supervision, validation, visualization.
Ethics Statement
The authors have nothing to report.
Consent
The authors have nothing to report.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Peer Review
The peer review history for this article is available at https://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer‐review/10.1002/vms3.70469.
Acknowledgements
AI declaration: the authors use computation tool in language checking and editing.
Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.
Data Availability Statement
There is no new data generated.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
There is no new data generated.