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. 2025 Apr 12;18(12):e202402566. doi: 10.1002/cssc.202402566

Table 1.

Reported electrocatalysts for C—N coupling in urea synthesis using CO2 and NO3 − as reactant sources.

Catalyst Electrolyte Electrochemical cell J urea [mA cm−2] Potential [VRHE] FE [%] Yield Stability Detection method References
Vo–InOOH 0.1 M KNO3 H‐cell 0.36 −0.5 51 9.8 mmol g−1 h−1 10 DAMO‐TSC [44]
Fe–Fe3O4/CNs 0.1 M KNO3 H‐cell 0.72 −0.65 17 24.2 mmol g−1 h−1 10 Urease method [39]
Ru–Cu CF 0.1 M KNO3 Single cell 2.54 0.13 25 151.6 μg h−1 mgcat −1 12 DAMO‐TSC [138]
In(OH)3–S 0.1 M KNO3 H‐cell 0.53 −0.6 53 8.89 mmol g−1 h−1 8 DAMO‐TSC [42]
TiO2/Nafion 0.1 M KNO3 H‐cell – −0.5 40 N/A 2 Urease method [52]
Cu/ZnO GDEs 0.1 M KNO3 Flow cell 1.12 −0.3 37 16 mmol g−1 h−1 5 DAMO‐TSC [28]
CuWO4 0.1 M KNO3 H‐cell 0.95 −0.2 70 1.64 mmol g−1 h−1 10 Urease method [18]
FeNi3 0.1 M KNO3 H‐cell – −0.9 17 8.23 mmol g−1 h−1 – Urease method [139]
Co1–TiO2 0.1 M KNO3 H‐cell 18.4 −0.8 36 212.8 mmol g−1 h−1 – Urease method [140]
XC72R–AuPd 0.025 M KNO3 + 0.075 M KHCO3 H‐cell 1.4 −0.5 15.6 3.4 mmol g−1 h−1 10 DAMO‐TSC [62]
Cu–GS‐800 0.1 M KNO3  + 0.1 M KHCO3 H‐cell 7.56 −0.9 28 30.63 mmol g−1 h−1 – DAMO‐TSC [63]
F‐CNT‐300 0.1 M KNO3  + 0.1 M KHCO3 H‐cell 0.30 −0.65 18 6.36 mmol g−1 h−1 8 DAMO‐TSC [141]
Bi:10%In/C NPs 0.1 M KNO3  + 0.1 M KHCO3 H‐cell – −0.45 20 10.1 mmol g−1 h−1 – Urease method [142]
m‐Cu2O 10 mM KNO3  + 0.1 M KHCO3 H‐cell 1.97 −1.3 9 29.2 mmol g−1 h−1 – Urease method [143]
6 Å Cu 0.1 M KNO3 + 1.0 M KOH Flow cell 115.25 −0.41 51.7 7541.9 37 μg h−1 mgcat −1 50 1H‐NMR [27]
B–FeNi–DASC 50 mM KNO3 + 0.1 M KHCO3 H‐cell 7.57 −1.5 17.8 20.2 mmol g−1 h−1 – Urease method [74]
Cu1–CeO2 50 mM KNO3  + 0.1 M KHCO3 H‐cell 4.68 −1.6 NA 52.84 mmol g−1 h−1 4 Urease method [144]
Vo–CeO2‐750 50 mM KNO3  + 0.1 M KHCO3 H‐cell 1.52 −1.6 NA 15.7 mmol g−1 h−1 5 Urease method [45]
3D Zn/Cu hybrid 1000 ppm KNO3 + 0.1 M KHCO3 Flow cell 10.00 −0.8 75 55.3 mmol g−1 h−1 32 DAMO‐TSC [145]
Cu/Zn 0.1 M KNO3 + 0.2 M KHCO3 H‐cell 3.13 −1.02 9 0.00729 mmol cm−2 h−1 12 1H‐NMR [29]
CuInS2/TF 0.05 M KNO3 + 0.05 M KHCO3 H‐cell – −0.8 20 50.29 mmol g−1 h−1 – DAMO‐TSC [146]
CuO50ZnO50 0.1 M Na2NO3 + 0.1 M Na2SO4 H‐cell – −0.8 41 NA – Urease method [147]
Cu–Bi heterostructure 0.1 M KNO3 + 0.2 M KHCO3 H‐cell – −0.6 23.5 80.3 μg h−1 mgcat −1 10 Urease method [148]
a–SnBi NS/rGO 0.1 M KHCO3 Flow cell – −0.4 78.36 462.37 μg h−1 mgcat −1 10 Urease method [149]
SrCo0.39Ru0.61O3−δ 0.1 M KNO3 H‐cell – −0.7 34.1 1522 μg h−1  mgcat −1 360 DAMO‐TSC [150]