Table 3.

Reported electrocatalysts for C—N coupling in urea synthesis using CO₂ and N₂ as the reactant sources.

Catalyst	Electrolyte	Electrochemical cell	J urea [mA cm−2]	Potential [VRHE]	FE [%]	Yield	Stability [h]	Detection method	References
PdCu/TiO2‐400	1.0 M KHCO3	Flow cell	0.16	−0.4	8.92	3.36 mmol h−1 g−1	12	Urease method	[61]
Cu–Bi	0.1 M KHCO3	H‐cell	–	−0.4	8.7	0.45 mg L−1	2	DAMO‐TSC	[64]
BiFeO3/BiVO4	0.1 M KHCO3	H‐cell	0.17	−0.4	17	4.94 mmol h−1 g−1	10	DAMO‐TSC	[66]
BiVO4	0.1 M KHCO3	H‐cell	0.23	−0.4	12.55	5.91 mmol h−1 g−1	10	DAMO‐TSC	[67]
CuPc NTs	0.1 M KHCO3	H‐cell	0.12	−0.6	12.99	143.47 μg h−1 mg−1	10	DAMO‐TSC	[153]
Ni(BO3)2–150	0.1 M KHCO3	H‐cell	0.31	−0.5	12.99	9.70 mmol h−1 g−1	20	DAMO‐TSC	[65]
VN–Cu3N–300	0.1 M KHCO3	H‐cell	0.11	−0.4	28.7	81 μg h−1 cm−1	10	DAMO‐TSC	[154]
Co‐based MOF	0.1 M KHCO3	H‐cell	0.49	−0.5	48.97	14.5 mmol h−1 g−1	20	DAMO‐TSC	[68]
InOOH	0.1 M KHCO3	H‐cell	0.25	−0.4	21	6.9 mmol h−1 g−1	20	DAMO‐TSC	[155]
MoP‐(101)	0.1 M KHCO3	H‐cell	0.05	−0.35	36.5	12.4 μg h−1 mg−1	5	DAMO‐TSC	[70]