Emerging trends and perspectives on nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture

Abstract

The intensifying global demand for agricultural products has been met with the excessive use of conventional fertilizers, leading to significant environmental pollution, soil and water degradation, and public health concerns. This challenge has been further exacerbated by the pressures of globalization, necessitating the adoption of more sustainable and efficient farming practices. As a promising solution to these issues, nanotechnology has been explored for its innovative approaches to enhance nutrient delivery and reduce environmental impact. In this review, the potential of various nano-fertilizers—including nano-NPK, nano-nitrogen (N), nano-phosphorous (P), nano-potassium (K), nano-iron (Fe), hydroxyapatite (HAP)-modified urea nanoparticles, and nano-zeolite composite fertilizers—has been investigated for improving crop productivity and sustainability. The applications in key crops such as wheat, potato, maize, and rice have been analyzed, with significant yield improvements reported: 20–55% for wheat, 20–35% for potato, 20–40% for maize, and 13–25% for rice. Additionally, grain yield enhancements of 20–55% for wheat, 22–50% for maize, and 30–40% for rice have been observed. It has been emphasized that the optimization of nano-fertilizer concentrations and application methods is crucial to ensure plant health and environmental safety. The transformative role of nano-fertilizers in advancing sustainable agriculture to address global food security challenges has been underscored.

Article highlights

Nano-fertilizers can increase yields significantly, improving wheat by up to 55% and rice by 40%.

These innovative fertilizers offer an eco-friendly alternative to traditional methods, reducing pollution.

Nano-fertilizers deliver nutrients more effectively, enhancing seed growth and overall plant health.

Introduction

The global demand for food has surged due to the rapid increase in human population. According to the United Nations, the current world population stands at 8.1 billion and is projected to reach 10 billion by 2058 [1]. Similarly, India’s population has reached 1.4 billion and continues to grow. Existing agricultural practices and technologies are insufficient to meet the needs of the expanding global population [2–5]. Chemical and mineral fertilizers have traditionally played a critical role in agriculture by enhancing plant production and supplying essential nutrients such as N, P, and K. N promotes leaf growth and is essential for protein synthesis and chlorophyll production; P is crucial for root, flower, and fruit development; and K supports stem and root development as well as protein synthesis [6]. However, the excessive use of synthetic fertilizers raises significant concerns regarding soil degradation, water and air pollution, and indirect effects on human health [3]. A major drawback is that these fertilizers are not fully absorbed by the soil or plants, which can adversely affect plant yield and nutrient content.

Organic fertilizers, while considered eco-friendly and beneficial for soil health, often face challenges such as low nutrient density, slower nutrient release, and variability in nutrient composition due to differences in raw materials and composting methods [7, 8]. These limitations can hinder their effectiveness in meeting the immediate nutrient demands of crops, potentially reducing agricultural productivity. Consequently, there is a pressing need for innovative solutions that bridge this gap and enhance nutrient delivery in a more targeted and efficient manner [9].

Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising avenue to address these shortcomings in agriculture [10]. Nano-fertilizers, characterized by their high surface area and unique physicochemical properties, enable more precise and controlled nutrient release, improve nutrient use efficiency, and minimize losses from leaching and volatilization [11]. In India, nanotechnology holds the potential to reduce the reliance on excessive chemical fertilizers while retaining authorized and Fertilizer Control Order (FCO)-listed urea [12]. These advanced nano-fertilizer formulations can penetrate deeper into the soil, be more efficiently absorbed by plants, and thus support higher crop yields while aligning with sustainable agricultural practices. The FCO, notified by the Government of India, regulates the quality and distribution of fertilizers, ensuring that only approved fertilizers such as urea, diammonium phosphate (DAP), single superphosphate (SSP), and muriate of potash (MOP) are permitted for agricultural use [12]. This framework is crucial in maintaining standardized fertilizer quality and supporting efforts by the government in sustainable agriculture.

Conventional fertilizers such as urea, DAP, SSP, and MOP have been widely used to enhance crop productivity. However, their extensive application presents significant environmental and health concerns. These fertilizers contribute substantially to the emission of greenhouse gases, particularly nitrous oxide (N₂O), which has a global warming potential approximately 300 times greater than carbon dioxide [13]. Ammonia volatilization from urea further contributes to atmospheric pollution and indirect nitrous oxide emissions. Additionally, excessive fertilizer use leads to nutrient runoff and leaching, resulting in soil acidification, nutrient imbalance, and increased soil erosion [14, 15]. These processes degrade soil quality and disrupt microbial communities vital for maintaining soil fertility. Moreover, contamination of water bodies due to fertilizer leachates causes eutrophication and poses risks to aquatic ecosystems and human health [16]. Collectively, these environmental impacts undermine soil health and threaten sustainable agriculture and human well-being, thereby highlighting the urgent need for developing eco-friendly and sustainable fertilizer alternatives.

Recent advancements in nanotechnology have shown considerable promise for transforming agricultural practices by addressing various challenges and enhancing sustainability. The dual nature of nanotechnology’s impact on agriculture has been emphasized, highlighting both its potential benefits—such as improved agrochemical delivery and reduced environmental pollution—and the need for careful risk assessment due to nanoparticle toxicity and environmental concerns [17, 18]. The emerging role of nanotechnology in overcoming the limitations of conventional agricultural practices includes applications of nanosensors, nanorobotics, and nano-barcodes to enhance precision farming and crop yield [19]. Integration of nanotechnology with precision agriculture has led to advancements such as nanoencapsulation for the controlled release of fertilizers and pesticides, as well as the development of nano-based disease detection tools [20]. The role of nanotechnology in addressing the challenges of sustainable agriculture involves the development of highly sensitive sensors for monitoring soil and plant conditions [21]. The potential of nanoparticles to improve crop production and quality while maintaining soil health has been noted, though there is also a recognized need for careful risk assessment [22]. The advantages of nano-fertilizers over conventional ones include improved nutrient efficiency and reduced environmental impact, while innovations in N and nano-N fertilizers have the potential to enhance nitrogen use efficiency and reduce environmental losses [23, 24]. These studies underscore the transformative potential of nanotechnology in agriculture, while also highlighting the necessity for ongoing research and regulatory frameworks to address associated risks and ensure sustainable implementation.

The use of nano-fertilizers, such as nano-NPK, nano-N, nano-P, nano-K, nano-Fe, nano-Zinc (Zn), nano-micronutrients, nano-chelated NPK, HAP-modified urea nanoparticles, and nano zeolite composite fertilizers, offers numerous benefits [25]. While each type of nano-fertilizer has unique characteristics and applications, their common goal is to enhance crop output and optimize nutrient utilization. Research indicates that nano-fertilizers can boost agricultural yields by accelerating seed germination, seedling development, photosynthetic activity, plant metabolism, and the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins [26]. Various forms of nano-fertilizers, including HAP nanoparticles [27–29], and hybrid nanostructures combining humic materials with nano-HAP particles have been developed [30]. Also, advancements such as urea-modified HAP nanoparticles [29, 31], chitosan nanoparticles loaded with NPK [32], and nanostructured slow-release phosphatic and potash fertilizers have been assessed for their effectiveness. The application of nano-fertilizers has been shown to significantly increase yield per acre compared to traditional fertilizers, resulting in greater profits for farmers [33].

In this review, the primary objectives are to evaluate recent advancements in nano-fertilizers, assess their impact on crop yield and nutrient uptake, and explore their role in enhancing agricultural sustainability. The study focuses on comparing the effectiveness of various nano-fertilizers—such as nano-NPK, nano-N, nano-P, nano-K, nano-Fe, and nano zeolite composite fertilizers—across four major crops: wheat, potato, maize, and rice. A thorough literature review was conducted to fulfill these objectives, synthesizing data from recent research articles, review papers, and case studies. The methodology involves a comparative analysis of experimental results and performance metrics reported in the literature, alongside a discussion of the advantages and limitations of nano-fertilizers. Conventional agricultural practices face significant challenges, including inefficient nutrient use, environmental pollution, and soil degradation, which limit crop productivity and sustainability. This approach aims to provide a thorough understanding of the current state of nano-fertilizer technology and its potential to address these critical challenges, ultimately contributing to more sustainable and efficient farming solutions.

Nano-polymers and nanomaterials for enhanced nutrient use efficiency (NUE)

In addition to the emphasis on Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) products, this review has been expanded to encompass a broader spectrum of nanomaterials, including nano-polymers and other innovative nanocarriers that have shown promise in enhancing NUE in agricultural systems [34]. Recent studies have highlighted the potential of various nano-polymers and nanocomposites, which offer improved nutrient delivery and uptake compared to conventional methods. These materials are engineered to release nutrients in a controlled manner, thus maximizing their availability to plants and minimizing losses due to leaching or volatilization [35]. Notable advances in nano-polymers, such as those based on biodegradable materials or tailored for specific nutrients, have been documented. These advancements are essential for developing more sustainable agricultural practices.

Table 1 Summarizes recent research findings on various nanomaterials, including their composition, application methods, and their impact on NUE.

Table 1.

Recent advancements in nano-polymers and nanomaterials for improving NUE

Sr. No	Nano material	Composition	Application method	Impact on NUE	Ref.
1	Nano-polymer fertilizers	Biodegradable polymers with NPK components	Soil incorporation and foliar spray	Improved nutrient uptake, 25% increase in NUE	[21]
2	Nano-composite carriers	Nano-clay composites with slow-release NPK	Drip irrigation and soil application	30% reduction in nutrient leaching	[36]
3	Nano-encapsulated micronutrients	Nano-polymers encapsulating micronutrients	Fertilizer granules and soil additives	Enhanced micronutrient availability, 20% increase in plant growth	[37]
4	Nano-biochar composites	Biochar combined with nano-fertilizers	Soil amendment	Improved soil fertility, 15% increase in NUE	[38]

Administration of nanotechnology in agriculture

The advent of advanced technologies has ushered in a shift from traditional farming methods to modern precision agriculture, leveraging various innovations to enhance efficiency and productivity. Precision farming now incorporates smart sensors, remote sensing devices, global positioning systems, nano-biosensors for disease detection, nanoscale imaging, and advanced water management systems. These tools enable detailed monitoring of soil conditions, plant development, and localized environmental factors, optimizing water and fertilizer use to reduce production costs and increase crop yields [9].

The applications of nanotechnology in crop production includes nano-fertilizers, which improve nutrient use efficiency through controlled and targeted nutrient delivery. Nano-encapsulation of fertilizers ensures slow and sustained nutrient release, promoting robust plant growth while minimizing losses from leaching and volatilization [11, 39]. In plant protection, nanotechnology enables the development of nano-pesticides, nano-herbicides, and nano-fungicides. These advanced formulations enhance the effectiveness of plant protection agents by enabling precise and controlled release, reducing the frequency of applications and minimizing environmental contamination [40]. Soil health management also benefits from nanotechnology applications. Nanoparticles, such as nano-zeolites and nano-clays, contribute to soil conservation and remediation by improving soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability. Moreover, enzyme immobilization in nano-biosensors presents new opportunities for high-value, low-volume applications that monitor and maintain soil health [41]. In the domain of post-harvest management, nanotechnology offers innovative solutions such as nano-coatings for fruits and vegetables, extending shelf life and maintaining freshness. Nano-packaging materials protect produce from microbial spoilage and physical damage during storage and transportation, enhancing food security and reducing post-harvest losses [42].

Technical aspects of various nano-fertilizer

Nano-fertilizers represent an innovative class of plant fertilizers engineered at the nanoscale (1–100 nm). They can be broadly classified based on their nutrient content: single micronutrients (such as iron-based nano-fertilizers), single macronutrients (including nano-nitrogen, nano-phosphorus, and nano-potassium), and combinations such as nano-NPK formulations [43]. In addition to conventional nutrients, some nano-fertilizers incorporate silica for potential cell wall strengthening or biopolymers like chitosan to enable controlled, slow nutrient release. These different types of nano-fertilizers are designed to enhance nutrient use efficiency and promote robust plant growth by improving nutrient availability and uptake [39, 44].

The superior performance of nano-fertilizers arises from their unique nanoscale properties. With a much higher surface area-to-volume ratio compared to conventional fertilizers, nano-fertilizers exhibit improved solubility and bioavailability, facilitating more efficient nutrient uptake by plant roots [35]. Moreover, many nano-fertilizers are engineered for controlled and targeted nutrient release, reducing losses from leaching and volatilization while ensuring a sustained nutrient supply over time. Their small size and enhanced mobility improve interactions with soil particles and root systems, leading to better nutrient transport and uptake [11]. Also, nano-fertilizers can positively influence plant physiological processes such as seed germination, enzyme activity, and photosynthesis, thereby boosting crop growth and yield [35]. Collectively, these mechanisms make nano-fertilizers a promising alternative for sustainable and efficient agriculture.

Nano-micronutrients

Micronutrients are essential nutrients that maintain the vitality of various metabolic processes in plants and are required in minute quantities (< 100 ppm). Micronutrients consist of Fe, Zn, manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), molybdenum, titanium dioxide, and others. Micronutrients play a major role in the synthesis of proteins and carbohydrates, auxin regulation, and plant protection against pathogens [45].

One study examined the application of Cu nano-fertilizer on broad beans using three broad bean seed cultivars—Spanish, American, and Dutch—two apical pinching conditions (apical pinching and no apical pinching), and three different concentrations of Cu nano-fertilizer (0, 1, and 1.5 gm/L). The plants received nano-fertilizer at three different times: immediately following complete germination (30 days), mid-growth (15 days), and late growth (30 days). The results showed that the maximum pod weight obtained was 41.08 gm/pod with pinching at 1.5 gm/L nano-fertilizer concentration in the American variety, while the minimum weight obtained was 17.96 gm/pod without pinching at 0 gm/L nano-fertilizer concentration in the Dutch variety. The highest pod yield was 457.67 gm/plant with pinching at 1.5 gm/L nano-fertilizer concentration in the American variety, while the lowest yield was 148.40 gm/plant without pinching at 0 gm/L nano-fertilizer concentration [46]. Another study applied nano-active (MgO, CaO, Fe, Mn, Zn 4/36/0.02/0.01/0.002) and nano-active forte by foliar spraying to sweet pepper plants. Nano active forte is a nano active formulation supplemented with N and K in a ratio of 10:13. The results indicated that when nano active was used, the increase in the yield of the pepper plant was only 2.63% as compared to the control, whereas the use of nano active forte resulted in a 13% increase in yield compared to the control. The concentrations of nitrates, P, K, and calcium in pepper fruit were 3.70, 16, 213.76, and 12.02 mg/100 gm when treated with nano active; 3.54, 15.59, 233.71, and 12.38 mg/100 gm when treated with nano active forte; and 3.44, 14.66, 212.40, and 12.14 mg/100 gm in the control treatment [47]. A separate study explored the seed priming effect and foliar application of micronutrients such as nano-Zn, nano-Fe chelate, chemical Zn, and chemical Fe chelate fertilizers on the quality of corn (Zea mays). The results showed that plant height (cm) increased by 26.72% and 19% when treated with nano-Fe chelate and nano-Zn, respectively, compared to the control. Plant height also increased by 25% and 12.54% when treated with chemical Zn and chemical Fe chelate, respectively, compared to the control. Total dry biomass (ton/ha) increased by 14.17%, 13.14%, 12.92%, and 11.74% when treated with nano-Fe chelate, nano-Zn, chemical Fe chelate, and chemical Zn fertilizer, respectively [48].

In another study, it was found that Mn nano-fertilizer is a more effective source of Mn supplementation for mung bean (Vigna radiata) than conventional Mn sources. The application of Mn nano-fertilizer resulted in a significant increase in photosynthesis and yielded promising results compared to the control group, which did not receive Mn. The use of Mn nano-fertilizer at a concentration of 0.05 mg/L led to a 38% increase in shoot length (cm) and fresh biomass (ton/ha), a 100% increase in dry biomass (ton/ha), a 52% increase in root length (cm), and a 71% increase in the number of rootlets. Furthermore, Mn nano-fertilizer outperformed the conventional MnSO₄ supplement for all the parameters studied, suggesting that Mn nano-fertilizer may be a superior choice for Mn supplementation in mung bean cultivation, offering significant improvements in plant growth and yield [49].

Nano-N

N is a critical component of many amino acids, proteins, DNA, ATP, chlorophyll, and cell structural units. N is an essential resource for plants. The effects of urea and nano-N chelate fertilizers on sugarcane yield were assessed. The observation showed that with the application of nano-N chelate, the height of the sugarcane stem increased from 78.7 to 204.3 cm, the stem diameter increased by 2.48–2.51 cm, and total yield increased from 30 to 71.2 ton/ha as compared to control [50]. The application of nano-N with conventional fertilizers and micronutrients such as nano-Zn and nano-Cu increased the grain yield, straw yield, and biological yield (ton/ha) of rice by 32.65%, 27.55%, and 30.45%, respectively, compared to the control [51]. The uptake of N by lettuce plants when treated with nano-N was significantly higher. When lettuce plants were treated with 100% nano-N, the N uptake by the lettuce plants was 168.2 kg/ha, whereas with 100% bulk N, the uptake was only 7.5 kg/ha. NUE increased by 91.95% compared to bulk N application [52].

The fertigation effect of urea and nano-N and foliar application of nano-boron and nano-molybdenum on growth parameters and yield of potatoes was studied. The results indicated that the fertigation of nano-N + foliar application of nano (molybdenum + boron) increased the chlorophyll SPAD values, dry vegetative yield (ton/ha), fresh tubers yield (ton/ha), biological yield (ton/ha), and starch yield (ton/ha) by 32.27%, 50.52%, 42.48%, 45.15%, and 44.05%, respectively, compared to the control water spray [53]. The application of zeolite-based nano-N fertilizer enhanced the maize crop yield parameters. With the application of zeolite-based nano-N, the grain yield (ton/ha) increased by 8%, and the 100-grain weight (g) increased by 7% for the crop grown on Inceptisol soil. These indicators showed further increases of 38.58% and 13%, respectively, compared to the application of conventional N fertilizer [54].

Nano-P

P is considered to be the second most important nutrient required for the proper development of plants. When synthetic P is given to plants, it is slightly absorbed due to its long half-life and high soil fixation. The application of nano-P significantly increased biomass and fruit yield, improved quality, and delivered P up to 40–50 days, while synthetic fertilizer delivered nutrients within 8 days of application [55]. The application of nano-P fertilizer increased N, P, and K concentrations by 55.60%, 72.54%, and 44.67%, respectively, compared to the control treatment [56].

The effect of nano-phosphatic fertilizer on nutrient content and uptake by pearl millet showed that the total uptake of N, P, and K increased by 54.59%, 66.67%, and 61.41%, respectively, when treated with nano-P at a 2.5-fold reduction of the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDP) through nano-fertilizer [57]. The response of maize hybrids to nano-fertilizer revealed a significant improvement in various growth and yield parameters. In the 2016 season, the average increases in plant height, ear length, number of rows per ear, number of grains per row, number of grains per ear, 100-grain weight, biological yield, and grain yield were 21%, 17%, 7.3%, 21.2%, 27.31%, 16%, 23%, and 13%, respectively; in 2017, the respective increases were 28%, 18%, 7.3%, 23%, 29%, 18%, 25%, and 26.5%, when treated with mineral fertilizer in the soil and nano-fertilizer of P by foliar application [58].

Nano-K

Following N and P as the most important nutrients, K comes as the third most essential nutrient. Plants that receive sufficient K are better able to withstand abiotic stresses, such as drought. A lack of K harms the growth of root shoots, the number of seeds in the fruit, the size, shape, color, and flavor of the crop, as well as the crop’s overall yield. K nanoparticles research has demonstrated that the use of nano-fertilizers can maintain soil health and improve water quality by decreasing K losses in the soil and enhancing physiological and yield attributes [59]. When wheat plants were treated with nano-chelated super fertilizer plus amino acids plus nano-K fertilizer, there was a significant increase in growth parameters. Plant height (cm), spike length (cm), biological yield (ton/ha), and grain yield (ton/ha) increased by 22.5%, 35%, 18%, and 36.5%, respectively, compared with the control treatment. The increases in chlorophyll SPAD value, as well as the percentages of N, P, K, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn, were 34%, 28%, 37.5%, 38.62%, 23.11%, 33.23%, 25.5%, and 22%, respectively, compared to the control treatment (sprayed with water only) [60]. The effect of different levels of chemical and nano-potassic fertilizers on the yield of maize crops revealed that the increments in plant height (cm), number of leaves per plant, length of cobs per plant (cm), and grain yield per pod (gm) were 25.3%, 34%, 38%, and 37%, respectively, when treated with nano-K and by reducing the recommended dose of K by 2.5 times as compared to the absolute control [61].

The effect of foliar application of K on the nutritional value of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) showed that the root fresh weight (gm), shoot dry weight (gm), shoot fresh weight (gm), root dry weight (gm), and total chlorophyll (%) increased by 69.3%, 66.13%, 31.11%, and 77.27%, respectively, when treated with nano-chelate K fertilizer (6 mg/L) [62]. The effect of spraying nano-K on two cultivars of the (Freesia hybrid L.) plant revealed that the average increase in various attributes of both varieties, such as plant height (cm), number of leaves per plant, leaf area (cm²), chlorophyll content, stalk length (cm), number of corms per plant, and number of cormels per plant was 27.67%, 9.4%, 12.23%, 4%, 28%, 12.5%, and 40% when treated with nano-K fertilizer at 2 gm/L as compared to the control [63]. Foliar spray with nano-Optimus plus and K-chelated fertilizer with amino acids significantly enhanced the growth characteristics of (Citrus Aurantifolia L.) saplings. The growth parameters included plant height (cm), stem diameter (cm), number of branches per plant, number of leaves per plant, leaf area per plant (cm²), total chlorophyll (mg/100 gm), and total carbohydrates (mg/100 gm), and the results indicated an increase of 40%, 39.11%, 59.39%, 56.45%, 27.3%, 60%, and 48% when treated with 1.5 ml/L Optimus plus concentration and 4 ml/L K chelated fertilizer [64].

Nano-NPK

Nano-NPK enhances the slow-release properties of fertilizers, enabling steady delivery of nutrients to plants for a longer time and reducing the leaching of fertilizers into groundwater. The application of nano-NPK improves the growth and yield parameters of crops. The application of nano-NPK was found to reduce chemical fertilizer dosage while increasing the yield of potato crops. The increases in the number of tubers, yield per plant (g), total yield of tubers (ton/ha), and marketable yield of tubers (ton/ha) were 10%, 15%, 13%, and 13%, respectively, when treated with 50% of the recommended fertilizer plus 4 gm/L nano-NPK (20:20:20) compared to the control treatment [65]. In lupine plants, treatment with 2 ml/L nano-NPK resulted in increases in plant height (cm), dry weight (g), N (%), P (%), and K (%) by 13%, 48%, 33.5%, 36%, and 16.4%, respectively, compared to conventional NPK fertilizer [66].

The effects of nano-compound fertilizer combined with salicylic acid and organic matter on rocket plants (Eruca sativa Mill) under salt stress showed the highest values when fertigation was done with nano-compound fertilizer, poultry waste, and salicylic acid together. Increases were observed in vegetative yield (ton/ha), dry yield (ton/ha), chlorophyll content (mg/100 g), and nutrient contents N (%), P (%), and K (%) by 59.5%, 53.5%, 17%, 38%, 62%, and 17%, respectively, compared to the control treatment [67]. Liquid nano-NPK application at 6 ml/L on cucumber plants increased growth and yield parameters including plant height (cm), number of leaves, yield per plant (kg), and dry matter per plant (%) by 31%, 29%, 60.5%, and 42%, respectively, compared to untreated plants [68].

Effect of nano-fertilizer on various crops and their parameters

Nano-fertilizers are extensively used in different crops at different concentrations and conditions. Several studies have demonstrated the outstanding effects of nano-fertilizers on various crop varieties and their yield parameters.

Wheat

Grain crops are the most important and oldest crops known to humans because they are considered the main source of food. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important crops, ranking first in Iraq, Iran, Egypt, and the world because of its strategic role in achieving food security [69]. According to UkrAgroConsult, the global wheat planting area is 225 million hectares, with a total production of 781.31 million tons [70]. In India, wheat production ranks second, next to rice production. The nation is expected to produce 112.18 million tonnes of wheat in 2022–23, up 4.44 million tonnes from 2021 to 2022, according to second advance estimates for the agricultural year 2022–23. There are various wheat varieties, such as Durum wheat, Egypt-1, Ebaa-99, Turkish wheat, AL-Baraka, Latifia, Ibaa-95, and many more [34, 51, 70, 71]. With each passing day, the requirement for wheat is increasing, with a tremendous rise in its consumption. Therefore, to fulfill this requirement, the only possible way is to increase the planting area of wheat production or implement the use of nano-fertilizers in the current wheat fields to increase the production of wheat per unit hectare in the desired planting area available. Nano-fertilizers have the potential to increase production by releasing nutrients in the soil and plants at a controlled and steady state, which leads to increased uptake of N, P, K, and other micro- and macronutrients. It will also enhance the photosynthetic process of plants, which will result in a healthier plant [72].

Wheat plants treated with nano-fertilizers, specifically nano-chitosan NPK particles, have demonstrated the presence of these nanoparticles within their phloem tissue. Following the foliar application of the nanoparticles for ten days, the particles entered the plant through the stomata and travelled via the xylem vessels. Subsequently, they were translocated to the phloem tissue, where they were distributed throughout the plant along with assimilated nutrients. These findings help explain the observed variations in wheat plant growth, yield, and lifespan following nano-fertilization treatments [70].

Figure 1 illustrates the biological yield of wheat plants subjected to different fertilizer treatments, comparing the yield between conventional control treatments and nano-fertilizer applications. The treatments include iron nano-fertilizer, NPK (20–20–20), NPK (25–25–25), NCSF, NNmF, and Nano NPK. The figure shows that the use of nano-fertilizers consistently resulted in higher biological yields compared to the control treatments across all fertilizer types. For instance, treatments with NCSF and NNmF demonstrated particularly pronounced increases in yield when nano-fertilizers were used. This suggests that nano-fertilizers enhance nutrient uptake and promote better plant growth, resulting in improved biological yield in wheat crops.

Fig. 1.

Biological yield of wheat plants treated with various nano-fertilizers (in ton/ha)

Figure 2 shows the increase in wheat plant height following treatment with nano-fertilizers compared to the control group. The results indicate that plants treated with nano-fertilizers consistently exhibited greater height throughout the growth period. This demonstrates the positive effect of nano-fertilizers on plant growth, likely due to improved nutrient uptake and utilization efficiency.

Fig. 2.

Plant height of wheat plants treated with various nano-fertilizers (in cm)

Table 2 shows the studies of various researchers with an outstanding increase in the grain yield of wheat, as well as other factors such as the number of grains per plant, and number of leaves, plant height, and so on.

Table 2.

Various yield parameters and growth parameters of Wheat

Fertilizer description	Yield		Grain yield		Plant height		Spike length		1000 Kernel weight		No. of Grain/spike		Ref.
	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano
Nano chitosan NPK fertilizer	–	–	–	–	79.14	89.76	14.95	19.45	37.45	65.15	46.38	53.78	[70]
Nano chitosan NPK fertilizer	9.2	12.27	–	–	90.2	105.4	11.36	12.74	–	–	–	–	[71]
Fe nano-fertilizer	11.384	14.663	4.02	6.68	67.34	89.92	7.88	12.22	40.7	50.4			[73]
NNPK (20–20–20), Nano chelated Micro fertilizers (NCM) and Yeast Extract of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (YE)	11.499	13.364	4.06	5.99	67.22	87.77	8.44	12.22	39.6	47.8	–	–	[74]
NNPK (25–25–25), NSMP (Nano-fertilizers Super Micro Plus Chelates and Traditional Foliage Fertilizer	–	–	–	–	36.23	51.32	5.8	7.76	33	46.4	–	–	[75]
Nano Chitosan NPK (500 ppm, 60 ppm, 400 ppm)	–	–	–	–	72.05	86.7	7.3	9.1	32.5	47	50.35	62.1	[76]
Lithovit And Nano N	12.649	15.435	4.46	7.04	70.12	90.43	8.44	13	40.7	50.43	–	–	[77]
Nano Chelated Super Fertilizer, Nano-K, Nano Amino Acids	9.429	14.792	3.3	7.1	70.49	94.92	8.99	14	38.6	47	–	–	[72]
Nano Chelated Mn Fertilizer (NMnF) and Nano Chelated Full Micro Fertilizer	9.04	13.56	3.74	4.96	104	116.75	11.36	13.19	29.94	36	38.84	51.015	[63]
Fe Nano-fertilizer	–	–	–	–	87.83	102.67	–	–	36.93	40.53	48	60	[78]
Nano-fertilizer of K and Boron	–	–	3.09	6.975	41.56	76.25	–	–	16.62	32.09	15.35	32.83	[79]
Nano-Silica (NSi)	–	–	5.76	8.16	–	–	8.99	14	39.96	44.3	58.6	67.8	[80]
Mineral and Nano-fertilizers, Nano-Micro Nutrients	–	–	3.6	4.66	72.07	91.87	9.57	12.3	42.44	45.7	–	–	[81]

Potato

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the most important vegetable plants in the family Solanaceae. In terms of consumption, it comes in first place among vegetables and tubers and ranks fourth economically. Nutrient-dense vegetables include those with 15–29% dry matter, 10–25% starch, 1% mineral salts, and 1–2% protein content. Potato is considered the most important food crop for humanity because it is a stable food for many of the world’s population. Potato production is influenced by various genetic factors such as variety, seed size, planting date, climatic factors, fertilization, treatment with hormones, agricultural operations, cultivation distance, depth, and irrigation [65, 82]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), by 2025, global potato production is projected to reach 500 million tons, marking a 42.1% increase. Asia, Africa, and Latin America are projected to produce 320 million tons, representing a 45.5% increase and accounting for 64% of the world’s total production.

In the past century, various pesticides and fertilizers have been used to increase the yield of plants. However, these methods increase the yield of potatoes but at the cost of various risks to humans and the environment. The goal of the modern agriculture system is to provide an effective management system to increase the production of high-quality crops to lower the risk to humans and the environment [83]. Changes in climatic conditions and lower fertility levels of the soil with declining water availability will decrease crop production. Thus, nanotechnology will become useful and will play an important role in modern agriculture in increasing the yield and nutrient content of crops. Various researchers have observed that the application of nano-fertilizers increases the biological yield, vegetative dry matter, fresh tubers, tuber weight, tuber dry matter, and number of tubers. According to recent research, the application of nano-NPK in the field increases the N, P, and K uptake in tubers from 118.60, 37.17, and 83.74 to 212.32 kg/ha, 65.65 kg/ha, and 164.24 kg/ha, respectively [84].

Figure 3 shows the biological yield (tons/ha) of potato plants under various nano-NPK treatments compared to the control. All nano treatments increased the yield, with the Nano-NPK (Nano-phosphatic fertilizer) having the most substantial effect. This suggests that nano-phosphatic fertilizers are highly effective in enhancing potato yield.

Fig. 3.

Biological yield of the potato plant when treated with nano-NPK in tons/ha

Table 3 illustrates that the application of nano-fertilizers in the field enhances various crop parameters, and nanotechnology can be a reliable technology in the agricultural and food sectors.

Table 3.

Various yield parameters and growth parameters of the Potato

Nano chitosan NPK fertilizer	Biological yield (ton/ha)		Vegetative dry matter (ton/ha)		Fresh tubers (ton/ha)		Tubers dry matter (ton/ha)		Weight of tubers (gm)		Percentage of starch—control		Ref.
	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano
Nano-NPK (fertigation)	8.27	11.39	1.43	2.15	30.67	48.22	6.84	9.25	–	–	12.54	16.47	[85]
Nano-NPK (Genotype + nano-fertilizers)	–	–	–	–	37.98	50.24	–	–	84.1	110.56	10.81	12.01	[82]
Nano-NPK (Nano foliar spray)	7.7	12.23	2.4	2.9	28.44	42.13	5.45	9.33	–	–	12.22	17.1	[86]
Nano-NPK (Nano-urea, nano-boron, molybdenum effects)	4.46	8.66	0.89	1.8	21.58	37.52	–	–	–	–	–	–	[53]
Nano-NPK (Nano-phosphatic fertilizer)	30.17	41.34	3.16	3.86	15.84	19.3	7.9	4.76	–	–	74.15	81.34	[57]
Nano-chitosan NPK fertilizers	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	74.17	99.73	–	–	[84]
Nano-NPK (Planting dates + nano-fertilizers)	–	–	–	–	31.7	42.6	–	–	153.53	177	11.35	21.05	[87]

Maize

Maize (Zea mays L.) is globally known as the queen of cereals because of its high genetic yield potential. Maize is also the world’s leading crop and is widely cultivated as cereal grain. Maize is third most important food crop in India, after wheat and rice. Maize is also grown as a rabi and summer crop and is mainly cultivated in the kharif season [61]. Pratap Hybrid Maize 3, Gujrat Anand Yellow Maize 3, Single Cross 162, Single Cross 166, Single Cross 168, Hybrid Euphrates or South Africa variety, and maize hybrids (Pioneer SC 30N11) are the various maize varieties. Maize is beneficial to human life, animal life, and the industrial sector. In recent decades, a number of nations have experienced a decline in farmed areas and a loss in agricultural productivity despite the multifarious applications [88]. Reduced soil fertility and poor crop feeding management are the main causes of decreases in maize output [89].

The major varieties of maize or corn are grown during the rainy season, and it is one of the crops more sensitive to drought than other cereal crops, except rice. Water stress conditions can be caused by the low availability of water content in the soil due to continuous water loss by transpiration-evaporation [90]. According to data reported by the FAO, the total maize production worldwide in the year 2022 is 1.05 billion tons and in the year 2023 is 1.5 billion tons. Maize production requires a higher concentration of nutrients; thus, to provide these nutrients, excess chemical fertilizers are applied in the field, but they prove to be unbeneficial, as they reduce the organic matter present in the soil and affect the soil by making it hard and creating an undesirable texture [91]. P plays a crucial role as a fertilizer by providing necessary nutrients to plants or crops. N and K are also required for healthy plant growth. However, P is a necessary mineral for cellular structures in a variety of critical processes, such as the transport and storage of chemical energy. A crucial factor in increasing plant output is the harvest index of P, which may eventually be improved by increased P intake [61]. HAP nanoparticles, a novel type of P fertilizer, have been shown to boost agricultural yields and lower the risk of atrophic water [92]. Phosphate nano-fertilizers decrease the need for fertilizer while enhancing plant development and output [93].

Figure 4 illustrates the biological yield of maize plants (in ton/ha) under different nano NPK fertilizer treatments. The results show a consistent increase in yield across all nano treatments compared to the control. The highest biological yield was recorded in the treatment with the highest level of Nano NPK application, reaching over 40 ton/ha. This suggests that nano-fertilizers can significantly enhance biomass production in maize.

Fig. 4.

Biological yield of maize plant when treated with various nano-fertilizers in ton/ha

Figure 5 shows the plant height (cm) of maize under different nano-fertilizer treatments compared to the control. All nano treatments resulted in a notable increase in plant height, with Nano Potassium yielding the highest height (~ 200 cm). This demonstrates the effectiveness of nano-fertilizers in promoting vegetative growth. The enhanced nutrient availability and uptake likely contributed to the observed improvements.

Fig. 5.

Plant height of maize plants when treated with various nano-fertilizers (cm)

Table 4 presents the findings and various experiments of researchers that enhance crop yield and several other parameters of the crop.

Table 4.

Various yield parameters and growth parameters of Maize

Nano chitosan NPK fertilizer	Biological yield (ton/ha)		Grain yield (ton/ha)		Number of grains/row		Plant height (cm)		Weight of 100 grains (gm)		Ref.
	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano
Zn-chitosan NPS	10.05	13.99	3.95	5.33	–	–	156	195	–	–	[94]
Zn-chitosan NPs	13.44	18.34	6.08	8.52	32.45	41.95	149.79	183.41	37.93	46.29	[58]
Nano-P and K	14.74	22.55	4.23	8.45	23.6	35.9	–	–	27.33	35.33	[95]
Nano-K	–	–	–	–	–	–	151.4	165.2	–	–	[54]
N Nano-fertilizers, Urea, K fertilizer	31.5	44.1	5.1	7.25	31.65	44.1	168.8	211.7	35.8	49.65	[96]

Rice

Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) is the second most staple food consumed by more than half of the world’s population after wheat [97]. Rice cultivation extends to a wide range of climatic regions, from tropical to temperate and subtropical countries. Rice cultivation is practiced in 114 of the 193 countries in the world [98]. Asia is the world’s largest producer and consumer of rice, with more than 90% of the rice produced and consumed in Asian regions, specifically in East and Southeast Asia, because of the ability of the rice crop to tolerate excessive water conditions and both cold and warm climates. Rice is the most important cereal crop in India, followed by wheat, maize, and potato [51].

According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the total global rice production in 2023 is 518.14 million tons. Currently, China is the world’s top producer of rice, with 149 million tons of rice produced globally. India ranks second, with 132 million tons of rice produced worldwide. More than 165.25 million hectares are used for rice cultivation worldwide. Rice is an indispensable source of calories, carbohydrates, sugars, and other nutrients. Rice is a major source of most trace elements in humans, including Zn, accounting for 49% of Zn in children and 69% in women [99]. The availability of accessible nutrients, including N, P, K, sulfur, and Zn, as well as the state of the soil, are the main determinants of rice production [100]. Rice plants need many mineral nutrients, especially N, to grow, develop, and produce grains [101]. According to some studies, N stimulates cell proliferation, which may account for the increase in plant height. Even at lower application rates, plant height increased more when traditional fertilizers were combined with nano-fertilizers [102, 103]. Numerous studies have shown that the exogenous use of some nanoparticles may greatly enhance plant growth [104, 105]. Researchers have hypothesized that grain and straw yields are significantly affected by nano-fertilizers [106–110]. Numerous investigations have validated the importance of nano-fertilizers. For example, used nano-fertilizer to increase rice crop output [111]. This is consistent with the findings of Liu et al. 2009, who found that using nano-fertilizers boosted crop output by 20–40% [112].

Figure 6 shows the biological yield (ton/ha) of rice plants under various nano-fertilizer treatments compared to the control. All nano treatments resulted in higher yields, with the most notable increases observed in the DAP and Nano Potassium-Calcium treatments. The application of nano-fertilizers improved nutrient efficiency, contributing to enhanced biomass production in rice. These results highlight the potential of nano-formulations to boost rice yield sustainably.

Fig. 6.

Biological yield of rice plant when treated with various nano-fertilizers in ton/ha

Figure 7 presents the plant height (cm) of maize under DAP and Nano Potassium-Calcium fertilizer treatments compared to the control. The nano treatments resulted in increased plant height, with the DAP treatment showing the greatest improvement. These findings suggest that nano-fertilizers enhance nutrient uptake and contribute to improved vegetative growth in maize. The use of such formulations may be beneficial in boosting crop development efficiently.

Fig. 7.

Plant height of maize plants when treated with various nano-fertilizers (cm)

Table 5 shows the data of the study of the application of various nano-fertilizers to increase grain yield and other plant parameters.

Table 5.

Various yield parameters and growth parameters of Rice

Nano chitosan NPK fertilizer	Biological Yield (ton/ha)		Grain yield (ton/ha)		Plant height (cm)		Harvest index		Ref.
	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano	Control	Nano
Nano N and Zn	8.27	11.89	3.89	5.78	–	–	46.41	48.61	[100]
DAP fertilizer	14.5	19.35	3.36	4.85	140.43	163.74	23.17	28.73	[113]
Nano-K and Calcium	16.7	19.2	4.25	6.14	133.19	146.6	21	25.19	[114]

Potential risks and challenges of nanotechnology in agriculture

Although nanotechnology offers revolutionary advancements in agricultural productivity, it also introduces several risks that require careful consideration. The potential environmental and health concerns associated with nano-fertilizers and other nanomaterials are significant due to the unique properties of nanoparticles, such as their small size, high reactivity, and ability to interact with biological systems in ways that larger particles cannot [115]. One of the primary concerns is nanoparticle toxicity, as these particles can easily penetrate plant tissues and enter ecosystems through various pathways, including direct application, leaching into soil, or runoff into water bodies [116]. Studies have shown that certain nanoparticles, especially metal oxides like Zn oxide and titanium dioxide, may be toxic to plants at higher concentrations, potentially disrupting plant metabolism and growth [117]. Furthermore, nanoparticles can be absorbed by soil organisms and plants, creating unintended consequences for agricultural ecosystems.

Another pressing issue is the accumulation of nanoparticles in the soil, which could negatively affect soil structure, fertility, and microbial ecosystems. Prolonged exposure to nanoparticles may disrupt beneficial soil microorganisms, which play a critical role in nutrient cycling. This disruption could impair processes like N fixation, reducing nutrient availability for crops and diminishing long-term agricultural productivity [117]. Research has demonstrated that nanoparticles can alter microbial diversity and activity, threatening soil health and the natural fertility of agricultural land. Moreover, these changes in microbial ecosystems could lead to imbalances that undermine the sustainability of nano-fertilizers and impact crop yields over time [118].

Also, there are significant concerns about the effects of nanoparticles on water systems. When nanomaterials are applied in agriculture, they may leach into groundwater or be carried into nearby rivers and lakes through runoff, posing risks to aquatic life. Nanoparticles have been shown to cause oxidative stress, damage cellular structures, and impair reproductive systems in fish and other aquatic organisms [119]. The potential for bioaccumulation along the food chain also raises concerns for human health, as nanoparticles could infiltrate crops, livestock, and eventually human food sources [120]. Given the persistence of some nanoparticles in the environment, their long-term ecological effects remain poorly understood. Therefore, ongoing research and the development of clear regulatory frameworks are essential to ensure the responsible use of nanotechnology in agriculture while mitigating these potential risks [121].

Figure 8 illustrates the multifaceted risks associated with the use of nanomaterials in agriculture, including potential toxicity to plants, disruption of soil ecosystems, and adverse effects on water systems. It highlights key areas of concern such as nanoparticle accumulation, impacts on soil health, and risks to aquatic life and human health.

Fig. 8.

Challenges and environmental implications of nanomaterials in agriculture [42]

Commercial use and regulatory issues

The commercialization of nano-fertilizers has seen a growing interest due to their potential to enhance NUE and reduce environmental impact. Several products have entered the market, with various companies developing nano-fertilizer formulations tailored to different agricultural needs. These products promise benefits such as improved nutrient delivery and uptake, which can lead to higher crop yields and reduced fertilizer loss [122]. However, the commercialization of nano-fertilizers also faces regulatory challenges. The application of nanotechnology in agriculture is subject to stringent regulations aimed at ensuring the safety for human health and the environment [123]. Regulatory bodies in different regions, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), have established guidelines for the evaluation and approval of nanomaterials used in agricultural products. These regulations typically require comprehensive safety assessments, including toxicity studies and environmental impact analyses [124]. Also, the lack of standardized protocols for the assessment of nanomaterials poses a challenge for regulatory processes.

The advancement of nano-fertilizer technology will benefit from ongoing efforts to develop clear and consistent regulatory frameworks, which are crucial for ensuring the safe and effective use of these innovative products in agriculture [125].

Nano-fertilizers typically exhibit unique physicochemical characteristics that contribute to their superior performance compared to conventional fertilizers. Most nano-fertilizers have particle sizes ranging from 10 to 100 nm, which significantly enhances their reactivity and facilitates easier penetration into plant tissues [11]. Morphologically, nano-fertilizers often display diverse shapes such as spherical, rod-like, or sheet-like structures, each influencing their nutrient delivery efficiency and interaction with soil systems. These nanomaterials also possess high surface area-to-volume ratios, enabling a greater number of active sites for nutrient adsorption and release [39]. Also, surface charge and chemical composition—including the presence of specific functional groups—can modulate the interactions between nano-fertilizers and plant cell membranes, thus affecting nutrient uptake rates and bioavailability [126]. These characteristics enable nano-fertilizers to improve nutrient use efficiency and crop yield while potentially reducing the environmental footprint of traditional fertilization practices.

Prospects and outlook

Nanotechnology offers transformative opportunities to enhance agricultural productivity through precise nutrient delivery and improved crop yields. Future research should focus on optimizing nano-fertilizer formulations and application strategies to maximize nutrient use efficiency while minimizing environmental impacts. Key priorities include scaling up production, developing standardized protocols for safe and effective use, and harmonizing regulatory frameworks to ensure public trust and adoption. Integration of nano-fertilizers with precision agriculture technologies, such as sensor-driven nutrient monitoring and targeted delivery, holds great promise to further enhance efficiency and sustainability. Continued interdisciplinary collaboration among researchers, industry, and policymakers will be essential to unlock the full potential of nanotechnology in agriculture and contribute to global food security.

Critical analysis and future perspectives

Despite promising results, several challenges and knowledge gaps remain regarding the widespread adoption of nano-fertilizers. Most studies focus on short-term crop yield improvements, while long-term effects on soil health, microbial ecosystems, and environmental safety are still poorly understood. Variability in nanoparticle size, shape, and chemical composition across studies complicates comparison and generalization, highlighting the urgent need for standardized characterization and testing protocols. Also, concerns around nanoparticle toxicity, bioaccumulation, and ecological risks necessitate comprehensive risk assessments before large-scale use.

Looking ahead, the development of multifunctional nano-fertilizers—combining nutrient delivery with traits such as pest resistance or abiotic stress tolerance—could revolutionize crop management. Integrating nanotechnology with advances in plant physiology and soil microbiology through interdisciplinary research will be crucial to understanding nanoparticle interactions in agroecosystems. Addressing scalability and regulatory hurdles through collaborative efforts will accelerate the responsible and sustainable deployment of nano-fertilizers in modern agriculture.

Author contributions

Ankush Goyal conducted the investigation, wrote the original draft, and contributed to conceptualization and methodology. Sachin S. Chavan provided supervision and contributed to conceptualization, data curation, and methodology. Rajendra A. Mohite, Israr A. Shaikh, and Yogesh Chendake supervised and validated the work while contributing to conceptualization. Dadaso D. Mohite conducted the investigation, curated data, and reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Availability of data and materials

Data is provided within the manuscript.

Declarations

Ethics, consent to participate, and consent to publish

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.