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. 2025 Jun 22;4(7):1901–1911. doi: 10.1039/d5dd00073d

Table 1. Summary of applications and corresponding kernel choices in PAL.

Application Prediction & training kernel Generator kernel Oracle kernel
Photodynamics simulations Fully connected neural network committee Parallel surface-hopping MD simulations TDDFT (B3LYP/6-31G*) with Turbomole
HAT simulations Graph neural network (SchNet, Allegro, MACE) committee Randomized sampling of relevant geometries; transition state search Semiempirical calculations with xTB and DFT (BMK/def2-TZVPD) with Turbomole
Inorganic clusters Graph neural network (SchNet, MACE) committee MD simulations with varying cluster sizes and charges DFT (TPSS/dhf-TZVP) with Turbomole
Thermo-fluid flow optimization Convolutional neural network committee Particle swarm optimization CFD simulations: in-house OpenFOAM solver