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. 2025 Jun 18;16:1586544. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2025.1586544

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Copyright © 2025 Saddozai, Liu, Yan, Lu, Khawar, Akbar, Khattak, Sun and Yang

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Tumor microenvironment (TME) and immune landscape differences between clusters. (A) Tumor purity differs significantly between C1 and C2. (B–D) ESTIMATE analysis shows higher immune and stromal scores in one cluster. (E) Immune cell infiltration analysis reveals distinct TME profiles between clusters. (F) Immune-related gene expression varies, particularly in checkpoint molecules and regulators. * Symbols denotes, A single * denotes a p-value of less than 0.05, indicating a statistically significant difference. Two ** represent a p-value of less than 0.01, suggesting a highly significant difference, while three *** indicate a p-value of less than 0.001, reflecting a very highly significant difference.