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. 2025 Jul 1;15:21870. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-07192-2

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Methodological characteristics and sports program characteristics of the included studies. (A) A total of 21 seed-based FC (15 included in the meta-analysis) and 29 other non seed-based FC metrics (10 ALFF/fALFF/ReHo included in the meta-analysis) in the systematic review. (B) A total of 14 studies on closed-skill sports and 17 studies on open-skill sports were examined. Table tennis (n = 6), along with endurance running (n = 4) are the most researched. Abbreviations: ALFF: amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation; CGCA: conditional granger causality analysis; DC: degree centrality; fALFF: fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation; FC: functional connectivity; FCD: functional connectivity density; FS: functional stability; ICA: independent component analysis; PreAL: percentage amplitude of fluctuation; ReHo: regional homogeneity; ROI: regions of interest; VMHC: voxel-mirrored homotopic connectivity.