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. 2025 Jul 2;15:22946. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-06953-3

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — (a) and (b) Nitrate + nitrite and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) molar uptake rates, respectively (see text). We used a flushing time of 13 days which is the mean of the range obtained from our simulations (see Figs. S17a, S18a and S19a). Positive values indicate net drawdown inside the fjord (autotrophic fjord).