. 2025 Jun 13;10(25):26250–26265. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.5c01916

3. Biological Effects in Fish After Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory (NSAID) Drugs Exposure.

Compound	Experimental condition	Concentration	Species	Biological effects	Ref.
diclofenac	laboratory	0.2, 2, and 20 μg L^–1	Rhamdia quelen	increase of superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) in kidney
diclofenac	laboratory	3.08 mg L^–1	A. altiparanae	reduction of testosterone (T) and 17β-Estradiol (E₂) concentration
diclofenac ibuprofen	laboratory	3.08 and 13.7 mg L^–1	A. altiparanae	increased thyroxine (T4) in 24 h
diclofenac ibuprofen	laboratory	3.08 and 13.7 mg L^–1	A. altiparanae	decreased triiodothyronine (T3) concentration at 96 h
diclofenac	laboratory	0.2, 2, and 20 μg L^–1	Rhamdia quelen	reduction of dopamine and metabolite DOPAC
diclofenac	laboratory	0.2, 2, and 20 μg L^–1	Rhamdia quelen	effects of antioxidant defense on liver and gonads
ibuprofen	laboratory	0.1, 1, and 10 μg L^–1	Rhamdia quelen	disturbance on the antioxidant system
				immunosuppression
				changes in the osmoregulation process
diclofenac	laboratory	0.4 μg L^–1	A. altiparanae	promotion of lipid peroxidation
diclofenac	laboratory	0.4 μg L^–1	A. altiparanae	inhibition of antioxidant enzymes
diclofenac	laboratory	3.08 mg L^–1	A. altiparanae	SOD and GPx activity inhibition by DCF
diclofenac	laboratory	3.08 mg L^–1	A. altiparanae	no effect on AChE activity
ibuprofen diclofenac	laboratory	0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 ng L^–1	A. lacustris	reduction of fshβ and lhβ gene expression
ibuprofen diclofenac	laboratory	0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 ng L^–1	A. lacustris	decrease of 11-Ketotestosterone and T concentrations
diclofenac	laboratory	0.2, 2.0, or 20 μg kg^–1	Hoplias malabaricus	alteration of hematological parameters	,
				immunotoxic effects
				oxidative stress
diclofenac	laboratory	0.2, 2.0, and 20 μg L^–1	Rhamdia quelen	nitric oxide production was reduced and alteration of 20 anti inflammatory-related proteins in plasma and kidney proteins