Table 1.
Maternal psychosocial, behavioral, and medical characteristics compared by race/ethnicity
| non-Hispanic White (n = 5,296) | non-Hispanic Black (n = 1,122) | Hispanic (n = 1,477) | Asian (n = 342) | Other (n = 435) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psychosocial characteristics | |||||
| Married | 4,022 (76%) | 151 (13%) | 549 (37%) | 297 (87%) | 188 (43%) |
| Income | |||||
| > 200% federal poverty level | 3,810 (79%) | 214 (31%) | 455 (50%) | 269 (87%) | 197 (57%) |
| 100–200% federal poverty level | 575 (12%) | 144 (21%) | 201 (22%) | 26 (8%) | 61 (18%) |
| < 100% federal poverty level | 429 (9%) | 324 (48%) | 262 (29%) | 15 (5%) | 85 (25%) |
| Private insurance | 4,385 (83%) | 382 (35%) | 588 (40%) | 291 (85%) | 237 (55%) |
| Education | |||||
| Less than high school | 206 (4%) | 207 (18%) | 203 (14%) | 4 (1%) | 65 (15%) |
| High school or GED | 387 (7%) | 286 (25%) | 269 (18%) | 9 (3%) | 58 (13%) |
| Some college, associate/technical degree | 1,322 (25%) | 437 (39%) | 609 (41%) | 59 (17%) | 133 (31%) |
| College or higher degree | 3,381 (64%) | 192 (17%) | 391 (27%) | 269 (79%) | 178 (41%) |
| Employed | 3,849 (87%) | 433 (57%) | 698 (64%) | 215 (77%) | 236 (70%) |
| Non-English primary language | 4 (0.1%) | 0 | 121 (8%) | 3 (1%) | 0 |
| Cohen perceived stress | |||||
| Low | 3,431 (65%) | 470 (42%) | 751 (52%) | 198 (58%) | 210 (49%) |
| Moderate | 1,723 (33%) | 559 (50%) | 632 (44%) | 140 (41%) | 200 (46%) |
| High | 121 (2%) | 84 (8%) | 66 (5%) | 3 (1%) | 22 (5%) |
| Krieger experience of racism | |||||
| None | 4,508 (87%) | 615 (58%) | 900 (66%) | 174 (52%) | 240 (57%) |
| Moderate | 577 (11%) | 264 (25%) | 320 (24%) | 111 (33%) | 125 (29%) |
| High | 102 (2%) | 183 (17%) | 141 (10%) | 48 (14%) | 59 (14%) |
| Conner–Davidson resilience score | 80 ± 11 | 80 ± 13 | 78 ± 13 | 77 ± 11 | 80 ± 11 |
| Multidimensional scale of perceived social support score | 6.3 ± 1.1 | 5.8 ± 1.4 | 6.0 ± 1.2 | 6.3 ± 1.0 | 6.1 ± 1.2 |
| REALM-SF score | 6.9 ± 0.7 | 6.1 ±1.5 | 6.0 ± 2.0 | 6.7 ± 1.2 | 6.5 ± 1.1 |
| EPDS score | 5.4 ± 4.0 | 6.6 ± 4.8 | 6.3 ± 4.5 | 5.7 ± 3.8 | 6.0 ± 4.2 |
| Parents with a history of diabetes | 880 (17%) | 237 (23%) | 331 (25%) | 92 (29%) | 103 (25%) |
| Behavioral characteristics | |||||
| Planned pregnancy | 3,747 (71%) | 274 (24%) | 635 (43%) | 267 (78%) | 195 (45%) |
| Prepregnancy counseling about gestational weight gain | 2,054 (39%) | 266 (24%) | 492 (33%) | 132 (39%) | 110 (25%) |
| Physical activity | 4,081 (77%) | 654 (58%) | 800 (55%) | 243 (71%) | 312 (72%) |
| Tobacco use | 324 (6%) | 98 (9%) | 37 (3%) | 1 (0.3%) | 42 (10%) |
| Daily glycemic load (g) | 90 ± 44 | 145 ± 101 | 104 ± 61 | 79 ± 46 | 109 ± 68 |
| Daily glycemic index | 49 ± 4 | 52 ± 3 | 50 ± 4 | 49 ± 3 | 50 ± 3 |
| Total daily calories (kcal) | 1,497 (1,182, 1,882) | 1,965 (1,309, 2,845) | 1,558 (1,138, 2,096) | 1,308 (1,008, 1,698) | 1,564 (1,180, 2,093) |
| Total daily carbohydrates (g) | 184 (143, 235) | 250 (158, 376) | 197 (143, 274) | 160 (114, 201) | 204 (147, 267) |
| Total daily protein (g) | 56 (43, 72) | 63 (43, 96) | 56 (40, 78) | 48 (36, 66) | 53 (40, 75) |
| Total daily fat (g) | 57 (43, 74) | 74 (51, 113) | 58 (41, 81) | 54 (41, 70) | 61 (43, 82) |
| Total daily fiber (g) | 15 (11, 20) | 14 (9, 20) | 13 (9, 19) | 13 (9, 18) | 14 (9, 20) |
| % calories from carbohydrates | 50 ± 7 | 51 ± 8 | 51 ± 8 | 48 ± 7 | 51 ± 7 |
| % calories from protein | 15 ± 3 | 14 ± 3 | 15 ± 3 | 15 ± 3 | 14 ± 3 |
| % calories from fat | 34 ± 6 | 35 ± 6 | 34 ± 6 | 37 ± 6 | 34 ± 6 |
| Healthy Eating Index 2010 | 65 ± 12 | 54 ± 11 | 61 ± 12 | 69 ± 10 | 60 ± 14 |
| Medical characteristics | |||||
| Maternal age (y) | 28 ± 5 | 23 ± 5 | 25 ± 5 | 31 ± 5 | 26 ± 6 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24 (22, 28) | 27 (22, 34) | 25 (22, 29) | 22 (21, 25) | 25 (22, 31) |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 79 (74, 88) | 84 (75, 97) | 82 (75, 91) | 75 (70, 81) | 81 (73, 92) |
| Chronic hypertension | 104 (2%) | 50 (4%) | 28 (2%) | 3 (1%) | 13 (3%) |
| Asthma | 635 (13%) | 205 (20%) | 171 (14%) | 23 (7%) | 69 (17%) |
| Polycystic ovarian syndrome | 172 (3%) | 16 (1%) | 47 (3%) | 14 (4%) | 9 (2%) |
Abbreviation: GED, general educational development.
Notes: Data presented as n (%), mean ± standard deviation, or median (interquartile range), as appropriate.
p < 0.001 for all except PCOS (p < 0.01).
Cohen Perceived Stress: 10-question survey using 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 4 with total scores ranging from 0 to 13 considered low stress, 14 to 26 moderate stress, and 27 to 40 high stress.23
Krieger Experience of Racism: 9-item self-report about lifetime experiences of discrimination attributed to race, ethnicity, or skin color with moderately defined as an affirmative answer to one or two experiences and high as an affirmative answer to three or more experiences of racism.24
Conner–Davidson Resilience: 25-item questionnaire using a Likert scale ranging from 0 to 4 for a maximum score of 100 with higher scores representing higher resilience.25
The multidimensional scale of perceived support: 12-question survey using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 7 with total score calculated as mean score across all questions with higher scores representing higher levels of support.26
REALM-SF: 7-item word recognition test with a score of 0 representing third-grade literacy and below with inability to read most low-literacy materials and needing repeated oral instructions, 1 to 3 representing 4th to 6th-grade literacy needing low-literacy materials and not able to read prescription labels, 4 to 6 representing 7th to 8th-grade literacy with some struggle to read most patient education materials but will not be offended by low literacy materials, and 7 representing high school or more, able to read most education materials.27