Efficacy of Brain Training Games on the Cognitive Functioning, Working Memory and Processing Speed of Healthy Individuals: A Meta-Analysis

ABSTRACT

Background:

Brain training games refer to as the activities designed for the stimulation of several cognitive functions. These games could be carried out through different platforms and can be accessed through smart phones, tablets, computers and other gaming devices.

Objective:

The objective of this meta-analysis is to determine the efficacy of brain training games on the cognitive functioning, processing speed, and working memory of healthy individuals.

Methods:

The meta-analysis was conducted by carrying out a comprehensive literature search strategy utilizing several relevant databases such as Pub Med, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science. The filters were applied to each of the databases with reference to the pre-defined eligibility criteria. The filters of language (English), publication year (2000–2024), study design (RCT), population (healthy individuals), and outcome variables (processing speed, memory, and cognitive functioning) were applied to identify the studies relevant to the research topic.

Results:

A total of 16 studies were selected to include in the review. The findings of the study reported that brain training games have reported statistically significant (P < 0.05) findings from the baseline. Some studies supported the efficacy of brain training games whereas some studies supported the efficacy of aerobic and other exercises over brain training exercises.

Conclusion:

Brain training games are effective for the improvement of cognitive functions, processing and working memory.

INTRODUCTION

Brain training games, also known as brain training exercises, are designed to stimulate and challenge the brain’s cognitive functions.[1] These games include memory tasks, problem-solving activities, puzzles, and attention exercises, which collectively enhance cognitive abilities such as processing speed, memory, attention, and problem-solving skills.[2,3] The benefits of brain training games range from improved cognitive functions and memory to increased focus, better multitasking, and mood enhancement.[4,5]

The mechanisms underlying brain training involve several physiological adaptations, with neuroplasticity being a key factor. Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to reorganize and form new neuronal connections in response to learning and experience.[6] Engaging in brain training enhances synaptic plasticity, involving changes in the strength and efficiency of synaptic connections, leading to better cognitive performance.[4,7] Studies also suggest that brain training promotes neurogenesis and influences functional connectivity, enhancing communication and coordination between brain regions.[4] Long-term involvement in brain training can induce structural changes in the brain, such as increased grey matter volume and cortical thickness, adapting to heightened cognitive demands.[6]

Neurochemical changes further contribute to the benefits of brain training. Neurotransmitters such as dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin play essential roles in this process.[5,6] Dopamine is associated with learning, memory, attention, and motivation, enhancing synaptic strength in memory-related regions like the hippocampus.[6] Acetylcholine supports sustained attention and memory, while serotonin regulates mood and contributes to cognitive flexibility and learning.[6] Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promotes neuronal growth, survival, and synaptic plasticity, facilitating the consolidation and encoding of new information, which improves cognitive functions.[7]

LITERATURE SEARCH STRATEGY AND ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

The systematic review titled “Efficacy of brain training games on the cognitive functioning, working memory, and processing speed of healthy individuals” was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science, covering disciplines like medicine, psychology, and education.[8] A combination of specific keywords and Boolean operators was used to formulate search strings, targeting terms like “brain training games,” “cognitive enhancement activities,” “working memory,” and “processing speed.” The PICO framework was incorporated, with additional filters applied for study type (RCTs), language (English), and population characteristics (healthy individuals).[9] Eligibility criteria included RCTs published in English from 2000 to 2024, focusing on cognitive outcomes in healthy individuals. Studies involving cognitive impairments, non-RCT designs, or grey literature were excluded to maintain consistency and quality.

METHODOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

The methodological quality of included RCTs was evaluated using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool (ROB-1), which examines various domains, such as random sequence generation, allocation concealment, participant and outcome assessor blinding, and selective reporting. Each domain was assessed individually, and the overall risk of bias was categorized as low, unclear, or high. This assessment ensured the internal validity and reliability of the review’s findings by minimizing potential bias in the included studies.

DATA EXTRACTION AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Data extraction was conducted systematically using the Cochrane Data Extraction Form, which captured study characteristics, participant demographics, intervention details, and outcomes related to cognitive functioning, working memory, and processing speed. Post-extraction, data were synthesized to summarize findings, highlighting pre- and post-intervention results, statistical significance, and clinical implications. Ethical considerations were prioritized by ensuring transparent and accurate reporting of findings, avoiding misinterpretation, and maintaining the credibility and validity of the systematic review.

RESULTS

Studies selection/PRISMA

Through searching literature on the relevant databases, the author has identified 581 studies highlighting the impact of brain training games on the working memory, processing speed, and cognitive functions of individuals. Among them, 110 studies were removed due to duplication. From 471 studies, 250 studies were retrieved for abstract and full text. 160 studies were removed as they had not included the targeted outcome variables. The remaining studies were removed due to not including the targeted study design. After proper screening, 16 studies were selected to include in the review. The PRISMA diagram in Figure 1 reflected upon the literature search context of the review. Figure 2 shows the Forest Plot. Characteristics of the studies included are shown in Table 1.

Figure 1.

PRISMA flow chart

Figure 2.

Forest plot

Table 1.

Characteristics of studies included

Study	Participants	Age Group/Mean Age	Intervention	Control	Outcomes	P	Conclusion
Ballesteros et al.[1]	30	57-80	Brain training	No training	Processing speed, attention	<0.05	Significant improvements
Guimarães et al.[10]	36	>50	Active video games	Aerobic exercise	Executive function, memory	<0.05	Aerobic > control
Hou & Li[11]	84	≥60	Video game training	No intervention	Cognitive & physical functions	<0.05	Training > control
Huang[12]	33	>50	Immersive VR	Non-immersive VR	Cognitive & executive functions	<0.05	Group 1 > Group 2
Jehangir[13]	300	18-24	Manual brain training	Computer games	Attention, working memory	>0.05	Both equally effective
Lawlor-Savage & Goghari[14]	57	30-60	Dual memory training	No training	Memory, processing speed	<0.05	Training > control
Li et al.[15]	40	68	Memory strategy training	Combined training	Memory, executive function	>0.05	Both groups effective
Maillot et al.[8]	32	65-78	Brain training	No training	Physical & cognitive functions	<0.01	Training > control
Mayas et al.[9]	27	68.7±5.2	Video games	No intervention	Attention, problem solving	0.01	Training > control
Nouchi et al.[16]	32	68.86±2.07	Brain Age games	Tetris	Executive function, processing speed	>0.05	Both equally effective
Nouchi et al.[17]	32	20.50±1.10	Brain Age games	Tetris	Executive function, memory	>0.05	Both equally effective
Nouchi et al.[18]	72	20-30	Brain Age games	Tetris	Processing speed, memory	>0.05	Both equally effective
Schättin et al.[19]	27	79.2±7.3	Exergame	Balance training	Pre-frontal activity	<0.023	Exergame > control
Sosa & Lagana[20]	35	≥65	Video games	No intervention	Cognitive functioning	0.01	Training > control
Shatil[21]	125	65-93	Cognitive training	Aerobic training	Processing speed, visual scanning	0.05	Training > control
Toril et al.[22]	40	69.95±6.73	Web-based training	No intervention	Visuospatial & episodic memory	0.05	Training > control

DISCUSSION

The review titled “Efficacy of brain training games on the cognitive functioning, working memory, and processing speed of healthy individuals” highlights the positive effects of brain training games across different age groups, with improvements observed in cognitive functioning, processing speed, and working memory. However, variations in participant demographics, cognitive baselines, and intervention protocols among the studies impact the generalizability of findings. Studies focusing on older adults[8,20] showed similar benefits to those involving younger adults,[13,17] though age-related differences in cognitive plasticity were noted. Gender differences were not prominently reported, but the unequal representation of males and females across studies could influence findings. Furthermore, inconsistencies in the intensity, frequency, and duration of interventions, along with variability in outcome measurement tools, complicate comparisons across studies. Short-term follow-up assessments in most studies limit understanding of the long-term effectiveness of brain training games.

Despite these limitations, the findings support the incorporation of brain training games into clinical practice and cognitive training programs, offering an effective strategy to enhance cognitive abilities across age groups. Structured interventions tailored to individual characteristics and preferences could maximize cognitive benefits. However, further research is necessary to establish the long-term effects, optimal intervention protocols, and the sustained impact of brain training games, particularly in promoting healthy aging and cognitive resilience.

CONCLUSION

The review was conducted to explore the effects of brain training games on healthy individuals thereby contributing towards understanding the correlation between brain training games and cognitive functioning, working memory, and processing speed. Previous studies were compared with the recent literature and revealed both consistencies and discrepancies, thereby highlighting crucial considerations for the interpretation of the effectiveness of brain training interventions. The included studies provided valuable insights into the correlation between brain training games and targeted variables, however, some crucial critiques and considerations need to be addressed. Future research should focus on standardizing the baseline information, through employing rigorous outcome measures, including diverse age groups, and incorporating long-term follow-up assessments for advancing our understanding related to efficacy and clinical implications of brain training games.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

Funding Statement

Nil.