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. 2025 Jan 28;5(4):2400439. doi: 10.1002/smsc.202400439

Table 3.

Comparison of biodegradable piezoelectric organic micro‐ and nanomaterials in terms of type of material synthesis approach, size and shape, biodegradation time, and biodegradation mechanism in physiological conditions.

Material Fabrication approach Shape and size Biodegradation medium Biodegradation time Biodegradation mechanism/byproducts and immune reaction References
Poly‐L‐lactic acid (PLLA) Solvent‐casting Thin film, thickness: 100 nm (size: 18 × 18 mm2) Degradation test at 37 °C in 50 mM Tris‐HCl buffer (pH: 8.5) with 0.2 mg mL−1 of proteinase K Amorphous regions completely degraded after 120 min, and only the crystalline regions remained intact Enzymatic degradation [239]
Dip coating Thin film, 50–150 μm (Eco‐PLLA 520) Degradation test at 37 °C in Sorensen's phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) Molecular weight almost halved over time, while the weight loss over 23 weeks was lower 10% Hydrolytic degradation [240]
Compression molding Thin film, thickness: ≈35 μm

Degradation test at 37 °C in PBS for 14 days, then switched to 74 °C.

Implantation in the backs of mice (C57BL/6J model)

No significant degradation of the PLLA sensors after 14 days. The sensor completely degraded at 74 °C after 56 days

In vivo, the sensor did not degrade

Hydrolytic degradation

Mild immune reaction without significant presence of inflammation, multinucleated giant cells, and fibrous capsules

[241]
Electrospinning Electrospun mat, thickness: 19–28 μm (size: 5 × 5 mm2) Implantation on a craniotomy defect in the mouse's skull (C57BL/6J model) Degradation after 4 weeks of implantation

Hydrolytic degradation of the ester‐bond backbone

The device elicits minimal fibrosis and immuneresponse

[225]
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) Electrospinning Electrospun mat, thickness: 250 μm Degradation test at 37 °C in PBS PHB showed a 6 % mass loss after 4 weeks Hydrolytic degradation [242]
Electrospinning

Electrospun mat, size 50 × 50 mm2

Fiber diameter: 196 ± 65 nm

Degradation test at 37 °C in simulated body fluid with and without lysozyme (concentration not reported) Weight loss is about 1.8% after 30 days. In the presence of lysozyme, weight loss increases to 14.4% in 30 days Hydrolytic or enzymatic degradation [243]
Dip coating Thin film, thickness: ≈100 μm (size: 10 × 10 mm2)

Degradation test at 37 and 70 °C in Sorensen's buffer (0.1 m, pH 7.4), with and without pancreatin (concentration not reported)

Implantation in a defect (6 mm in diameter) in the abdomen of male Wistar rats

Molecular weight decreased by 10, 25, and 45% after 3, 6, and 12 months. Accelerated degradation induced by pancreatin (molecular weight decrease of 30% after 3 months). Absence of changes in film mass over 52 weeks

In vivo, the material had a molecular weight of about 38% of the initial value after 26 weeks

Hydrolytic degradation. Enzymatic catalysis is unclear as the degradation behavior consists of molecular weight loss but constant mass [244]
γ‐Glycine Casting with solvent evaporation Thin film, thickness: ≈70 μm (with Mb electrodes and PLA encapsulation)

Degradation test at 37 °C in PBS

Implantation in the back of the mice (C57 model)

Dissolution of PLA‐encapsulated γ‐glycine/PVA film within 2 weeks

In vivo, the material was gradually absorbed within 10 days.

Degradation mechanism not reported

No evidence of tissue damage, immune response, or recognizable material byproduct

[186]
Casting with solvent evaporation Thin film, thickness: 30 μm (with Mb electrodes) Implantation under the skin in the dorsal region of rat (Sprague Dawley rat model) The device completely disappeared after 1 day

Degradation mechanism not reported.

Absence of any significant reference to immunorespoinse

[245]
β‐Glycine Drop casting and solvent evaporation Thin film, thickness: 38 μm Degradation test at room temperature in PBS The glycine/chitosan film dissolved after 2 days Not reported [156]
Poly‐γ‐methyl‐L‐glutamate (PMLG) Dry spinning Spun fibers, thickness not reported Degradation test at 37 °C in PBS with the pronase E (concentration not reported) Dissolution within 15 h, depending on the concentration of pronase E Hydrolytic and enzymatic degradation [246]
Poly‐γ‐benzyl‐L‐glutamate (PBLG) Not reported Thin film, thickness not reported Degradation test at 37 °C in PBS with a protease (type IV, activity: 1.0 unit mg−1). Degradation lower than 3% after 40 days Hydrolytic degradation [247]
Diphenylalanine (FF) Self‐assembly by dip coating Self‐assembled monolayer of fibers, thickness not reported Degradation test at 37 °C in PBS Dissolution after 10 min Hydrolytic degradation [248]
Self‐assembly and spin coating FF microrods (diameter: 2–15 μm; length: ≈21 μm) in a PLA matrix (thickness: ≈51 μm) Degradation test at 60 °C in PBS, 0.6 M NaOH, or 0.6 M HCl solutions Complete dissolution in all media after 25 days. The degradation rate is in the order of alkaline solution > acidic solution > phosphate‐buffered saline Hydrolytic degradation [236]
Collagen Not reported Film thickness: ≈40 μm (noncrosslinked fibrillar bovine collagen I) Subcutaneous implantation in adult male Lewis rats Decrement in the film thickness of ≈75% in 21 days Enzymatic degradation [249]
Not reported Film thickness: 400 μm (porcine skin‐derived collagen: DHT and DHT/EDC cross‐linked membrane)

Degradation test at 37 °C in a 0.25% porcine trypsin solution.

Subcutaneous implantation in albino male Wistar rats

Decrease in the thickness of the DHT and DHT/EDC membranes in 4 weeks after implantation (≈halved their thickness). In all cases, the thickness was close to 100 μm after 12 weeks Enzymatic degradation [250]
Commercial material Geislich Bio‐Gide (Geistlich Biomaterials), thickness: 400 μm (25 × 25 mm2) Implanted under the skin of the dorsal part of the cranium in Wistar‐derived rats Degradation of 60% after 4 weeks, and of 80% after 9 weeks Enzymatic degradation [251]
Commercial material Geislich Bio‐Gide (Geistlich Biomaterials), thickness: 400 μm Implantation on intracranial defects of Wistar rats The membrane thickness halved after 30 days Enzymatic degradation [252]
Chitin Casting Thin films of chitin with different degrees of deacetylation (from 0% to 100%), thickness: 150 μm

Degradation in PBS with lysozyme (4 mg mL−1).

Implanted in the subdermal tissue of Wistar rats back

Pure chitin: 20% remaining weight after 30 h. Other deacetylated derivatives: weight remaining from 50% to 90% after 30 h

In vivo, chitin and chitin with 69% degree degraded quite rapidly (50% after 2 weeks). while other deacetylated derivatives resisted up to 12 weeks, (weight remaining higher than 50%)

Enzymatic degradation [157]
Casting Thin film, thickness: ≈35 μm, β‐chitin Degradation at room temperature in 1 UN/10 mL chitinase, in deionized water Chitin film completely degraded after 8 days. The degradation time decreased to ≈4 days with 5 UN/10 mL of chitinase

Enzymatic degradation

The material might generate natural by‐products during biodegradation, such as CO2 gas

[253]
Chitosan Drop casting and solvent evaporation, crosslinked with NaOH Thin film, thickness: 38 μm Degradation at room temperature in PBS Mg electrodes degraded within the first minutes in PBS, while glycine/chitosan completely dissolved after 2 days Not reported [156]
Casting Thin films, thickness: 150 μm

Degradation in PBS with lysozyme (4 mg mL−1)

Implanted in the subdermal tissue of Wistar rats back

Pure chitosan lost less than 10% of its mass after 30 h

In vivo, chitosan resisted with a negligible mass loss over 12 weeks

Enzymatic degradation [157]
Keratin Self‐assembly Thin film, thickness: 30–40 μm (size: 1 × 1 cm2)

Degradation at 37 °C in a solution with trypsin

Subcutaneous implantation in the back of a male mouse (Nippon Clare, Jcl:ICR 10 W)

Degradation achieved 40–50% within 2 weeks, then leveled off at 50–60% in the following 18 weeks

In vivo, slower degradation kinetics, with a linear tendency that extent up to 60% over 18 weeks

Enzymatic degradation [254]
Silk Spinning Spun fiber, thickness not reported Degradation at 37 °C in PBS with and without Protease XIV (1.0 mg mL−1) Mass loss higher than 50% after 42 days with protease XIV. In PBS, the fibers did not degrade Proteolytic degradation (enzymatic degradation) [255]
Casting Thin film, thickness: ≈0.5 mm (size: 3 × 3 cm2) Degradation at 37 °C in 0.05 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), with ant without α‐chymotrypsin, collagenase IA, and protease XIV (1.0 U mL−1) Weight rapidly decreased to 70% in 1 day in all cases. After 15 days, the weight of the sheet was 68, 48, 30, and 68% of the initial mass in α‐chymotrypsin, collagenase IA, protease XIV, and phosphate buffer, respectively

Proteolytic degradation (enzymatic degradation)

Degradation products from collagenase IA protease XIV reported a molecular weight lower than 2.4 kDa, while those in the buffer without enzymes ranged from 20.0 to 70.0 kDa

[256]
Forming Thin film, thickness: 100 nm Degradation at 37 °C in PBS with protease XIV and α‐chymotrypsin (enzyme concentration: 300 μg mL−1) α‐chymotrypsin did not contribute to significantly degrading the silk crystals over 24 h. Protease XIV formed nanofibrils, and decreased the thickness of silk crystals from 5 to 2 nm over 24 h

Proteolytic degradation (enzymatic degradation)

Degradation products from protease XIV contained several low molecular weight fragments (less than 50 kDa) with respect to the α‐chymotrypsin

[257]
Cellulose Not reported Thin film, thickness 3 mm Implanted subcutaneously in female Wistar rats No evidence of degradation in vivo up to 12 weeks Nonbiodegradable in physiological conditions [258]
M13 bacteriophage Enforced infiltration M13 phage with a rod shape, diameter: 6.6 nm; length: 880 nm Degradation in human blood, saliva, urine, artificial gastric juice (AGJ) Decrease of phages in human blood, saliva, and urine by 44, 88, and 66% after 45 min, respectively. No phage resists after 5 min in AGJ. PBS do not show significant decrease over time Proteolytic degradation (enzymatic degradation) [165]