Verify the effects of esports on cognitive skill: focusing on decision making

Abstract

Background

Electronic sports (esports) are increasingly recognized as both a popular entertainment medium and a subject of scientific inquiry. Yet recent discussions have regarded esports as a threat to psychological and physical health and cognitive abilities of esports players. To examine this issue, this study investigated the effects of esports on brain activity associated with decision-making, focus, and stress.

Methods

Twelve male fourth-semester students majoring in Physical Education, with no prior experience in esports, participated in this study (Mage = 20.08 years; SD = 0.74). Baseline EEG measurements were recorded during a 3-minute eyes-closed resting state, subsequently, the participants engaged in FIFA esport for a period of eight weeks. In each session, participants were randomly paired to play with one another following a draw. EEG data were recorded again under the same conditions at the end of the program.

Results

Results indicated significant changes in beta (p = 0.017), alpha (p = 0.002), and delta (p = 0.003) wave activity at the F3 brain region, with no substantial alterations observed in theta waves (p = 0.086).

Conclusions

These findings suggest that regular esports participation can induce measurable changes in neural activity patterns, providing insights into its potential influence on cognitive functions.

Introduction

Although electronic sports, often known as video games, have already accounted for a major portion of digital entertainments over the past few decades [1], the global pandemic lockdown as a result of COVID-19 in 2019 and 2020 doubled the popularity of esports [2]. Since the esports industry is relatively young and relies on technology, the largest audience is the younger generation, particularly Gen Z [3]. Gen Z, in comparison to previous generations, is often more adapted to the growth of digital technology and are typically active in various technologies such as smartphones and social media [4]. Reports show that over 80% of Gen Z population (adults born in 1997 to 2010) spend about 7 h a day on video games and this matter has drawn the particular attention of researchers to esports [5]. A review paper defines esports as a recreational or organized activity where players compete in professional leagues or in the form of recreational competitions using electronic platforms [6]. Factors like entertainment and recreation, communication, competitiveness, self-expression, and a sense of belonging to a community are among the primary motivations of video game consumers [7].

While success in traditional sports largely relies on development of physical and motor skills, esports are less influenced by physical properties such as height and muscle mass, owing to the fact they are played over a virtual environment in cyberspace. Thus, the importance of psychological and cognitive aspects in esports receives more attention [8]. Interventional studies have generally confirmed improvements in cognitive skills in esports [9, 10]. For example, studies have supported effects of video games on working memory (WM [11], attention [12, 13], and problem-solving skills [14]. In addition, Jordan and Dhamala (2022) argued that video games can improve decision-making skill in video game players. Playing video games often involves quick application of received sensory information and frequent accurate decision making; therefore, it seems reasonable to assess how video games influence decision making [15]. Decision making involves evaluation of possible options, actions, and assessment of outcomes and it is linked to emotional, physiological, neurological, and personal differences [16], thus affecting nearly every aspect of our daily lives [17]. Decision making represents a complicated process influenced by two parameters, namely focus and stress. Decision making is directly linked to focus, meaning that decision making is improved when focus is enhanced. However, quality of decision making is not directly connected to stress. As stress builds up, it becomes more likely to make wrong decisions [18]. Previous studies have supported improvement in focus as a result of doing esports [19]. Focus may be influenced by stress, changing the quality of decision making [20]. Many decisions are made under stressful conditions [21]. The Mental Health Foundation defines stress as “the feeling of being overwhelmed or unable to cope with mental or emotional pressure” caused by a experiencing a new or unexpected situation [22]. Studies have supported the link between stress and decision often involving a negative approach [23, 24, 25]. Starcke and Brand (2012) found that effects of stress on decision making can increase the risk of unhealthy decisions such as smoking or unhealthy diet [26]. However, training in stressful situations can be beneficial in life-threatening like natural disasters, fire, or war circumstances, as individuals with low stress tolerance may eventually experience impaired decision-making [27].

During the decision-making process, brain resources are extensively allocated in frontal cortex [28]. Studies have shown that decision making engages left frontal structures more than right frontal structures [29]. A study on a Japanese board game (shogi), which like esports requires a high level of decision-making ability, identified the brain regions that are responsible for making decisions. In this study, the results from tracking brain activity during decision making for choosing an attack-based or defense-based strategy during a particular situation indicated that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has a role to play in decision making [29]. Stress and decision making are intricately linked not only at the behavioral but also at the neural level, as brain regions that underlie decision making are also sensitive to changes caused by stress [26]. In a study using fMRI to monitor neural activities of the participants during a cognitive test in a stressful environment, when stress successfully influenced the participants, changes were observed in the neural activity linked to DLPFC in the left area [30]. This left area in DLPFC is the one studied to assess the changes in focus [20].

Recent advancements in neuroimaging, such as fMRI, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and high-resolution electroencephalograms (EEG), have been helpful in non-invasive studies of human cognitive processing related to games [31]. For example, EEG has been used to study psychological differences in individual and cooperative games [32], analyze recognition of emotions (fatigue, calm, fear and joy) caused by video games [33], classification of video game players’ professionality [34], and the neurological processes involved in inhibitory control as a result of long-term participation in video games [35]. However, no study so far has simultaneously examined effects of esports on decision making and two parameters that influence decision making, namely focus and stress. Therefore, in the present study QEEG is used to examine the brain mechanisms involved in decision making, focus, and stress caused by playing esports.

Method

Participants

The statistical population covered by this study consisted of male undergraduate students in physical education with no background of engagement in video games. To screen for gaming experience, in accordance with the previous studies [15, 36], all participants were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding their video game habits over the past two years to determine their level of gaming experience. Participants reporting that they have played less than 5 h per week in any video games over the last two years were considered non-video game players. Based on the previous relevant studies, Hoyle (2019) recommended using 12 participants for the groups examined by such studies [32].

Familiarity of all participants with conventional soccer rules was ensured. Informed consents were collected from all participants, and they were all informed of the fact that they could drop out of the study at any time they wanted to. The research plan was prepared based on the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the university’s Ethics Committee and the Human Research Review Board.

Procedure

The participants were invited to the university’s Sports Science Research Laboratory and first, EEG measurements (which we will describe in the next section) were recorded for them. Then, they were directed to the gaming room to complete the game stage. In the gaming room, 6 identical stations were set up to ensure consistency in the data collected from the participants. Each station was equipped with a 24-inch monitor, a PlayStation 5 (PS5) console, two PS5 controllers, and two specifically designed gaming chairs. The participants received basic instructions about FIFA gameplay, including the functions of the controller buttons, how to select teams, player arrangement and team formations, player substitution, how to switch tactics and game plans during a game, etc. The participants played together after a lottery draw and were free to select a first-class European club to compete against each other. Each match took 10 min. The participants played FIFA video game three one-hour sessions a week over a period of eight weeks. All matches were recorded by the author to ensure the participants played for the same amount of time. At the end of the eight weeks, EEG was recorded for the participants again.

Data gathering

A 24-channel device (e-Wave, manufactured by Science Beam) was used to collect the EEG data. The EEG results were analyzed in Neuroguide software (version 3.2.9, developed by Applied Neuroscience Inc., 2023) and the findings were reported as qEEG data. Once in the laboratory, the participants sat on a comfortable chair. Next, the researcher measured their head circumferences and placed a right size EEG cap on their heads. A lycra electrode cap was used here. The electrodes were placed on the skull according to the 10–20 international system [37] and the locations for placing the electrodes on the scalp was slightly abraded to reduce impedance to less than 5 kΩ. Once the electrodes were placed, the subjects comfortably sat in a soundproof, low-light environment and they were asked to avoid any unnecessary movements (e.g. blinking, moving the head or the nose, swallowing). EEG measurements were recorded for 3 min with the subject’s eyes closed in a relaxed condition. This process was carried out for the participants once before playing FIFA and once after playing.

In the 10–20 system, the location of the F3 electrode represents DLPFC [38]. Therefore, here we examined the changes in F3. The reference electrode was connected to the auricle. Data recording was conducted between the hours 9 to 13 and each recording, together with preparation and filtering, took about 20 min. The wave spectrum was recorded from 0.1 to 30 Hz for four waves: delta (0.1–4 Hz), theta (4–7 Hz), alpha (8–13 Hz), and beta (14–30 Hz).

To eliminate artefacts, high-pass filters (0.1 Hz) and low-pass filters (100 Hz) were used and a 50-Hz notch filter was also applied. Next, the recorded data were divided into 2-sec intervals and examined for any remaining effects. EEG with large artefacts was eliminated.

Alpha, beta, delta, and theta waves are the most applicable ones in analyzing EEG signals. Beta waves, created in the left hemisphere, are produced during decision making, problem solving, attention, and any situation that actively engages the brain in an activity [20]. A number of studies have supported the link between alpha waves and decision making [39, 40]. Furthermore, experimental data show that increase in the power of delta waves during mental calculations matches focus [41, 42]. Therefore, when it comes to decision making, the exiting delta activity must be regarded as an indicator of cognitive focus [20]. And theta waves, produced in the left hemisphere of the human brain [43], are linked to stress [44, 45, 46].

Experimental tasks

PlayStation (PS5)

The video console is the most popular console used as a platform for offering games, especially entertainment games, utilized in 44% of studies to conduct research and report results [47]. The present study also used the standard model for Sony’s ninth generation console (The standard PS5 with a disc drive, Sony Interactive Entertainment, USA).

Data analysis

All statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics v.26.0. Normality of the data was established through Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and examining Q-Q diagrams and histograms.

Paired sample t-test was employed to assess potential changes caused by doing esport in decision making and focus and stress among the participants. Critical value for alpha was set at 0.05.

Ethical statement

The study was approved by the university’s Ethics Committee and the Human Research Revision Board (The approval number is: EE/1401.2.24.221932).

Results

The objective of the present study was to examine whether e-sports (FIFA video game) can to affect decision making and two parameters that influence decision making, namely focus and stress.

Demographic

Table 1 presents the demographic information of the study participants.

Table 1.

Average age of participants (all males)

	N = 12, Semester = 4
	Mean	Std. Deviation
Age (years)	20.08	0.74
Height (CM)	168.6	7.7
Weight (KG)	67.5	8.6

The results from the paired t-test to compare the QEEG data recorded before and after playing esports indicated significant differences for beta, alpha, and delta waves, while no significant difference was found for theta waves (Table 2). The effect size for beta (1.18) and alpha (1.15) waves indicates that changes for these two waves were substantial (Effect Size > 0.8 then Strong Effect). However, changes for the delta wave (0.695) were moderate, according to its effect size (0.5 < Effect Size < 0.8 then Medium Effect). In addition, based on the descriptive statistics of the pre- and post-game performance of the participants in delta, alpha, and beta waves, significant positive changes were reported in delta and alpha waves. However, theta wave changes are negligible (Fig. 1).

Table 2.

Paired- samples t-test results for comparing pre-game and post-game beta, alpha, Delta and Theta in QEEG for players

Wave	std	t	sig	Cohen’s d	95% Confidence Interval Lower Upper
Beta	3.820	2.812	0.017	1.18	0.425	1.923
Alpha	1.414	4.046	0.002	1.15	0.402	1.883
Theta	3.346	1.888	0.086	0.248	0.333	0.817
Delta	6.214	3.717	0.003	0.695	0.048	1.31

Fig. 1.

present descriptive statistics for performance before and after playing the game for the participants in the study. * indicates a significant difference between before and after playing the game

Discussion

The present study was conducted to examine the examine the brain mechanisms involved in decision making, focus, and stress caused by playing esports. Finding the right technique to assess changes represents an important task which has been facilitated by neuroimaging devices. QEEG is a relatively inexpensive, easy to use, and portable tool and is therefore a suitable option for daily clinical applications. To investigate the brain mechanisms related to esports using QEEG, a group of players with no history of playing esports were tested. The results showed that esports can have significant effect on beta, alpha, and delta waves at 3 f. However, no noticeable change was observed in theta wave.

Scientific learning theories have reached an agreement over the fact that the brain changes physically, chemically, and functionally as a result of life experience in an individual [48]. This experience-dependent flexibility occurs when individuals are repeatedly exposed to a task or a challenge that influences certain cognitive mechanisms [49]. Video games are popular entertainment platforms that are linked to cognitive mechanisms because when using them, players need to simultaneously track several complicated visual stimuli and decide and act under the pressure of time and based on the existing situation [50, 51]. Therefore, new important insights have been provided in connection to the neural mechanisms involved in learning and video games.

Hosseini et al. (2021) suggest that although excessive use of video games can result in unfavorable effects such as stress, aggressive behavior, and sleep disorders, they also come with certain favorable impacts such as enhanced focus, memory, and problem-solving skills [52]. In the present study, beta, alpha, and delta waves exhibited significant changes. All these waves grew after playing the game compared to the pre-game stage. Increase in beta waves in DLPFC as a result of playing video games has been previously confirmed [20]. In Japan, Hagiwara et al. (2019) examined cognitive effects of soccer video game on college students. They found that cognitive performance test results were significantly better in a group that played a game for ten minutes compared to the control group in their study. In addition, after comparing the extracted concentration of pre-game and post-game EEGs, they demonstrated that the participants who played the game had an increased power ratio in their beta band and significantly higher concentration levels [19]. Although cognitive skills cannot be accurately identified using waves [19], what is proposed by similar articles indicates that beta wave is linked to decision-making and problem-solving tasks [20]. Increased beta wave points to improved learning and information processing for making decision and finding solutions to problems [43]. The connection between video games and decision-making skills have also been supported by other studies [53]. In a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experience, Jordan et al.. (2022) examined brain and behavioral responses of video game players (VGP) and non-video game players (NVGP) in decision-making skills. In behavioral response, VGPs were in general faster and more accurate than NVGPs [15]. These findings may suggest enhanced sensorimotor decision-making abilities caused by playing video games. Most modern video games are sensitive to timing of events. Gamers must make the best decision at a particular moment and take the right action; otherwise, the game will no go according to the plan. Some genres such as strategic games or sports video games, usually force the player to think of the best possible way about how to divide their time to manage different cases and scenarios [54]. Using video games to enhance decision-making skills has been studied and supported for a number of jobs including for physicians [55], firefighters [21], and project managers [56].

On the other hand, alpha waves are associated with a relaxed state of mind. They can increase processing of a large volume of data and lead to inner balance and self-control, thereby helping making a better decision [43]. When alpha waves are predominant, the human brain produces hormones that reduce cognitive stress and create a state of contentment [20], thereby improving the brain potential capacity to effectively process information during tasks [57]. Minami et al. (2023) found that alpha wave increases in DLPFC in esports [8]. Higher levels of alpha wave as a result of playing video games have also been supported by Llamas-Alonso et al. (2019) [42] and Singh et al., (2020) [31]. Singh et al., (2020) found increased alpha wave after four weeks of practicing video games [31].

Activity in the delta frequency band is needed for focus [41]. During FIFA video game, a gamer must constantly focus on the location of the teammates and opponent players, process the information he or she receives, and makes the best decision (shooting, passing, crossing, etc.) based on these pieces of information. In addition, a gamer must have a high level of concentration and focus on the controller buttons in order to be able to correctly and quickly react during a game. All these can be effective in enhancing gamers’ focus. Hagiwara et al.. (2019) found that gamers’ focus was improved following a 10-minute period of playing video games [19]. However, our results are inconsistent with some findings of previous studies. For example, Virgilio (2024) suggests that stimulation and speed of video games can lead to reduced attention span, disruption in maintaining memory, and risking decision-making abilities. Cognitive processes in the brain may be constantly combined with audio and visual stimulants and challenge gamers in maintaining focus on tasks that need concentration [58]. Gentile et al. (2012) argued that gamers who spend greater time on games experience more problems in the domain of focus and attention. However, they also regard violent content of games as an effective factor in attention problems [59]. Hong et al. (2023) noted that by properly adjusting the time for playing video games, gamers can reduce harmful impacts of these games and benefit from their favorable effects. They recommend a maximum of 17 h of playing in a week [60].

Theta waves are not as simple as alpha and beta waves. Generated in DLPFC, they are associated with emotional stress [61]. Changes in theta waves were not significant in the present study. However, average level of theta wave slightly increased in posttest. This can mean that the increase in stress as a result of playing FIFA was not noticeable. Increase in theta wave as a result of playing video games was reported by Anguera et al., (2013) [62]. After examining EGG of 33 esports players in South Korea, Lim et al. (2019) found that the power ratio of theta and beta waves extracted from 1FP increased during esports activities compared to the rest state [63]. Sabri et al. (2020) believe that playing video games is to some extent associated with stress and anxiety, but not all video games are bad, unless video games are played to such an extent that disrupts healthy life functions [64]. Of course, stress is not always a bad thing. In some situations, certain levels of stress are needed to make the urgent right decision; for example, stress can be helpful when someone is in danger and needs to act urgently to save the lives of themselves or others. Sometimes a video game in itself can be used to reduce stress. As noted by Pallavicini et al. (2022) in a review study, video games reduced stress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness among adolescents and younger adults during the restrictions applied in response to the COVID pandemic [10]. Aldana et al. (2023) made some recommendations that can be used by video game developers to reduce stress, which include artistic content, inclusion of music, using soft and warm colors, exposure to natural environment and interaction with animal symbols, and finally considering the screen of the target device during game development [65].

Conclusion

The present study showed that esports can increase beta, delta, alpha, and theta waves. In decision making, increase in beta wave is necessary for observing and receiving information as well as for problem statement. High levels of alpha wave indicate a relaxed state of the mind. Focus is enhanced when delta waves increase as they are necessary for discovering and presenting potential alternative solutions when making decisions. However, excessive increase in theta wave which represents stress can disrupt decision making.

Limitations and future research

One limitation of our study is the small sample size; due to the costliness of the tool used in the study, it was not possible to include a greater number of participants. The second limitation is that all participants were male, and this was because of the small number of female students in physical education. Conducting a study of this kind on male and female participants can lead to some interesting results. Other limitation of the study was the inability to control factors like fasting [66], caffeine consumption [67], and sleep patterns [68], all of which can influence individuals’ cognitive performance. We relied on participants’ self-reporting, However, future researchers can take a more objective approach to these factors. finally, the authors of the present study had a limited time to conduct the study due to the approaching final exams of the semester. Studies of this type can produce more reliable results if they are conducted over a longer period of time.

Author contributions

MI: Data gathering, writing of the first draft, writing, and editing of subsequent drafts, reviewed the manuscriptAM: Supervision, Theoretical framing, project management and administration, reviewed the manuscriptMD: Validation, editing, reviewed the manuscriptEM: Recording and analysis Quantitative Electroencephalography, reviewed the manuscriptSH: Validation, and editing, reviewed the manuscriptEV: Validation, editing, reviewed the manuscriptES: Validation, editing, reviewed the manuscript.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The research plan was prepared based on the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz’s Ethics Committee and the Human Research Review Board (The approval number: EE/1401. 2.24.221932; the approval date: 14/05/2022). Verbal and written informed consent were obtained from all the participants involved.