Table 1. Controlling Variables Associated with Four Verbal Operants, as Outlined by Skinner (1957).

Verbal operant	Controlling variables
Antecedent		Consequence
Echoic	Listener plus verbal stimulus (resembles response)	Generalized reinforcement (e.g., praise)
Mand	Listener plus deprivation for a specific reinforcer	Access to the specific reinforcer
Tact	Listener plus nonverbal stimulus	Generalized reinforcement (e.g., praise)
Intraverbal	Listener plus verbal stimulus (does not resemble response)	Generalized reinforcement (e.g., praise)

Note. “Listener” refers to the presence of a listener and other related controlling stimuli.