Diachronic changes in local food heritage: the ethnobiology of wild foods in central Tuscany

Abstract

Background

Ethnobiological and gastronomic knowledge of wild foods has long-shaped rural traditions in Italy. In Valdera, Central Tuscany, foraging has been especially important among older generations. This study explores shifts in wild food knowledge and practices over two decades, comparing data collected in 2024 with findings from a 2004 study.

Methods

The study was conducted in Valdera, Central Tuscany, through structured interviews with local residents. Using the same methodological framework as a 2004 survey, participants were asked about wild food plants, mushrooms, and wild animals they recognized, used, and how they incorporated them into traditional dishes. This approach enabled a diachronic comparison of taxa diversity, plant families, and culinary applications. Special attention was given to how social and ecological dynamics, such as aging populations, urbanization, and changing educational backgrounds, influenced the retention or erosion of local traditional knowledge over the past two decades.

Results

A total of 86 folk taxa of wild plants were documented. The findings reveal a decline in the number of recorded taxa, from 59 folk taxa and 28 botanical families in 2004 to 57 folk taxa and 26 families in 2024. Despite the samples including a similar number of informants, the decrease in used folk taxa is significant, with several species absent in 2024, including notable wild greens taxa such as Capsella, Coleostephus, Clematis, Daucus, Epilobium, Helosciadium, Lactuca, Muscari, Rubus, Scabiosa, Potentilla, and Viola spp., as well as a few wild seasoning plants such as Allium roseum, Ammi, Juniperus, and Thymus spp. and wild snack species (Gladiolus, Sulla, Oxalis, Lamium spp.). Shifts in plant family diversity and culinary applications were observed, with a decline in the use of wild leafy plants, wild seasoning plants, and wild plant snacks, possibly associated with a reduced role of women in foraging wild greens and less exposure to nature, i.e., fewer activities done into natural environments such as shepherding and/or collection of wild snacks by children and teenagers. A similar trend was observed in mushroom and animal foraging and hunting, where the interviewees could recall details about 24 taxa of food mushrooms and 62 taxa of wild animals, as well as their culinary transformations, which were often related to the past and their younger lives. The analysis revealed that the age group affects knowledge about local wild plants, mushrooms, and animals. While higher education was linked to better systematization of botanical knowledge, individuals with an agricultural background showed significantly greater practical familiarity with plant uses.

Conclusions

These findings emphasize how traditional plant knowledge is increasingly threatened by social and ecological changes, underscoring the importance of developing conservation strategies that combine both cultural heritage and environmental sustainability.

Introduction

The globalization of food systems and the rapid dissemination of digital information have reshaped cultural and social relationships, profoundly influencing traditional knowledge of wild food ingredients, particularly plants [1]. While these transformations have improved food availability and accessibility, they have also contributed to the erosion of localized ethnobiological knowledge. This decline is particularly evident in rural and mountainous regions, where wild food resources, including plants, fungi, and animals, historically played a vital role in daily nutrition and cultural identity [2–4]. Factors such as urbanization, agricultural intensification, changes in land use, and shifts in dietary habits have led to the gradual loss of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), weakening intergenerational transmission [5].

Despite this decline, there is a resurgence of interest in wild food ingredients, driven by their nutritional value, cultural significance, and emerging role in sustainable food systems [6]. Ethnobiological research highlights the importance of wild food plants, fungi, and animals in food security, biodiversity conservation, and local gastronomy. In many rural communities, these wild resources once served as crucial dietary supplements, providing essential nutrients and culinary diversity. Today, their role is being redefined through gastronomic innovation and sustainability movements, reflecting both traditional knowledge and contemporary food trends [7, 8].

One of the key findings from recent studies highlights the shift in the perception and utilization of wild foods [9–11]. While many species once widely consumed have fallen into disuse, others have been revalorized due to their health benefits or culinary appeal [12]. This transformation is particularly noticeable in the restaurant and catering industries, where foraging-based haute cuisine has gained prominence [13, 14]. Movements such as"New Nordic Cuisine"have elevated wild ingredients from traditional staples to gourmet components, increasing their economic and cultural value [15]. However, this shift raises concerns about the sustainability of wild harvesting and its impact on local ecosystems and the transmission of traditional knowledge [16].

Rural depopulation and socio-economic changes have further weakened the transmission of TEK, leading to a generational gap in the recognition and use of wild foods, particularly among younger generations often disconnected from traditional foodways [10, 17]. The alarming decline in traditional food culture can be attributed to several reasons, including the success of new mass food cultures, such as fast food, the increased demand for packaged market foods, and the growing dependence on foods with a prolonged shelf life [18]. However, initiatives promoting food sovereignty, sustainable foraging, and agroecological practices provide opportunities to reintegrate these traditional wild resources into contemporary food systems. Such efforts not only support biodiversity conservation but also contribute to rural development and the preservation of cultural heritage [19, 20].

Understanding the historical and contemporary shifts in the use of wild foods requires a diachronic perspective, integrating historical records with ethnobiological field data [4, 21]. Comparative studies reveal how ecological changes, agricultural policies, and socio-economic transformations have influenced the use of wild plants, fungi, and animals over time. In some cases, species once regarded as famine foods have been entirely abandoned, while others have been rediscovered and integrated into modern cuisine [22].

Tuscany, a region known for its rich biodiversity and deep-rooted culinary traditions, provides an ideal case study for examining the evolution of wild food knowledge [23]. The region's diverse landscapes and historical agricultural practices have shaped a unique ethnobiological heritage. Although previous studies have documented the use of wild plants in traditional Tuscan cuisine, a comprehensive diachronic analysis that includes wild fungi and animals is needed to assess how broader ethnobiological knowledge has been preserved, adapted, or lost [24, 25]. This study aims to bridge that gap, offering insights into the persistence and transformation of wild food knowledge in Tuscany and its implications for sustainable food practices.

This study aims to document and analyze the use of wild food plants, fungi, and animals in the Alta Valdera region, employing a diachronic approach to assess how knowledge and consumption patterns have evolved. Specifically, our objectives are:

• To document the traditional and current use of wild foods, including plants, fungi, and wild animals in the region, focusing on their gastronomic and cultural applications.

• To evaluate the distribution of ethnobiological knowledge across different generations.

• To compare current foraging and consumption practices with previously published data collected two decades ago in the contiguous San Miniato area.

• To analyze the relationship between observed changes and broader environmental and socio-economic transformations, including climate change, land-use change, and cultural shifts.

By addressing these objectives, this research seeks to contribute to the conservation of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and Local Gastronomic Knowledge (LGK), ensuring that valuable ethnobiological traditions, including those related to plants, fungi, and animals, are documented and preserved for future generations. Understanding the factors that drive knowledge erosion and revival can inform strategies for reintegrating wild foods into contemporary food systems, thereby fostering cultural resilience and environmental sustainability.

Materials and methods

Study area and data collection

The research was conducted in the Alta Valdera region of Tuscany, Italy, which encompasses six municipalities (Capannoli, Palaia, Peccioli, Terricciola, Lajatico, and Chianni). The area, situated 25 km southeast of Pisa and 45 km northwest of Siena, spans 369.87 km² with a population density of 61 inhabitants/km² [23, 26] (Fig. 1). The landscape ranges from 50 to 284 m above sea level, characterized by river valleys, alluvial plains, and hilly terrain influenced by the Era River (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1.

Study area map showing the municipalities of Alta Valdera region, Tuscany, Italy

Fig. 2.

Panoramic view of Valdera’s territory

The 2024 study was designed as a diachronic follow-up to previously published research conducted in 2004–2005 [27] in the same geographical area. This comparison allows us to investigate temporal shifts in Local Gastronomic Knowledge (LGK) and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) related to wild food resources.

We acknowledge several limitations in the diachronic comparison. The demographic profiles of informants differed between the two periods: in 2004–2005, participants were mostly older women with agricultural backgrounds, while the 2024 group included a more diverse mix in terms of age and gender. Additionally, the 2024 sampling focused on individuals with strong local gastronomic and environmental knowledge, but it is unclear whether the same criteria were used previously. Finally, while quantitative comparison was possible for wild food plants, data on fungi and animals were collected qualitatively through interviews in both periods, limiting diachronic analysis for these groups.

A total of 19 informants were interviewed in spring 2024 using semi-structured interviews. These sessions focused on the traditional and current use of wild food resources, including wild and semi-domesticated plants, which refer to plants that are cultivated but still exhibit characteristics of wild species, often being subject to human management for purposes such as food production or conservation, mushrooms, and wild animals. Informants were recruited among long-term residents of local villages (e.g., Selvatelle, Terricciola, Morrona, Forcoli, Villasaletta, Casanova di Terricciola, La Rosa, Fabbrica, and Peccioli), and all participants provided informed consent following the International Society of Ethnobiology guidelines. For comparison, the earlier study in 2004–2005 included 18 informants (predominantly elderly women). Demographic characteristics for both datasets are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of informants’ demographic data (age, gender, education, and agricultural background)

Demographic category	2004–2005 Data (n = 18)	2024 Data (n = 19)	Total (n = 37)
Age group
55 years and below	1 (6%)	7 (37%)	8 (22%)
65 years and above	17 (94%)	12 (63%)	29 (78%)
Gender
Male	5 (28%)	9 (47%)	14 (38%)
Female	13 (72%)	10 (53%)	23 (62%)
Education level
No formal education	4 (22%)	2 (11%)	6 (16%)
Elementary school certificate	9 (50%)	12 (63%)	21 (57%)
Secondary school or higher	5 (28%)	5 (26%)	10 (27%)
Agricultural background
Agricultural background (current or past)	10 (55%)	6 (32%)	16 (43%)
Non-agricultural background	8 (45%)	13 (68%)	21 (57%)

In 2004–2005, data were collected by Signorini [27] in the contiguous San Miniato area, and plant specimens were gathered under the guidance of informants, who were later identified using standard herbarium techniques. In the current study, plants were identified by their descriptions provided by the study informants and by their folk names, which were aligned with those listed in the Italian phytolinguistic database for Tuscany.

Botanical nomenclature was aligned with the World Flora Online database [28] and family assignment following APG IV [28]. For wild fungi and animal species, identification was conducted without physical specimen collection. Instead, species were identified based on:

• Vernacular names and detailed descriptions provided during interviews,

• Cross-referencing with historical records and previously published ethnobiological data from the same region.

We have identified fungi and animals names with the help of pictures shown to the study participants and from their Tuscan vernacular name. Additionally, the scientific names of fungal taxa were validated using the Index Fungorum (https://indexfungorum.org/Names/Names.asp) and Species Fungorum (https://www.Speciesfu ngorum.org/). Animal names were validated through the Catalogue of Life (COL | The Catalogue of Life), the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (https://www.gbif.org/), and the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (https://www.iczn.org/the-code/the-code-online/). In the field study, the Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology was followed during our study (ISE 2008) [29]. The compiled database includes a range of variables structured into four main categories. Informant demographics encompass age group, gender, education level, and agricultural background. Species-related data include the local and scientific names (when available), taxonomic classification (plant, fungus, or animal), and use category (e.g., food, condiment). Usage and cultural information cover citation frequency for each species, collection habitats, traditional preparation methods, seasonal availability, and observed generational differences in knowledge or use. Additionally, the database incorporates environmental variables, such as climate parameters and land-use changes, for use in regression analyses, with data sources detailed below. In this study, culinary uses of plant species were classified into categories based on their predominant preparation and consumption methods. Categories such as"cooked vegetables"were used to distinguish dishes where vegetables are the main component, while other categories, including soups, omelets, risottos, and fried foods, encompass more complex or mixed preparations."Mixed vegetables"refers to dishes where vegetables are combined with other ingredients, but not necessarily as the primary component. This classification was designed to capture the most common uses of plants in local cuisine while ensuring consistency in how culinary applications were categorized.

Data analysis

Data preprocessing and cleaning were performed using R (version 4.4.2). The dplyr and tidyr packages were used to handle missing data, remove duplicates, and organize the dataset for further analysis.

Descriptive statistics were calculated using basic functions in R to summarize the data, including frequency distributions for categorical variables. The ggplot2 package was utilized to create visualizations to display the distribution of wild food plants and other relevant characteristics.

To analyze the diversity of wild food plants was employed with the vegan package in R, various ecological indices, such as the Shannon–Wiener, Choa1, and Simpson’s Diversity Index, were calculated to evaluate the richness and evenness of plant species used in the Alta Valdera region over time. Data for these indices were derived from interview responses, wherein each informant provided a list of wild food plant taxa and the frequency with which they were mentioned. These frequencies served as proxies for abundance in traditional culinary use, allowing us to assess culinary diversity.

To investigate factors influencing the persistence of traditional knowledge and environmental associations with wild food resource usage, multivariate regression analysis was conducted by SAS 9.4 software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Specifically, A logistic model was used to estimate the likelihood of knowledge retention (retention vs. decline) among informants based on socio-demographic variables such as age, gender, education level, and agricultural background. This model is appropriate given the binary nature of the outcome. A linear model was applied to assess the impact of environmental variables, specifically climate and land-use change, on continuous measures of plant diversity (e.g., species richness or diversity index values). Climate data were obtained from the Italian Meteorological Service and publicly available European climate databases, which provided key variables such as average annual temperature and precipitation trends for the study area. Land-use change data were sourced from satellite imagery and regional land-use databases, including those provided by local government and environmental agencies such as the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service. The selection of statistical models was guided by the type of dependent variables analyzed: binary logistic regression was applied to categorical outcomes related to knowledge retention, while linear regression was used for continuous variables such as biodiversity indices. For all statistical tests, the significance level was set at p < 0.05.

Results and discussion

Temporal comparative analysis

A list of botanical species that were recorded in both 2004 and 2024 is presented in Table 2, based on ethnobotanical interviews and field surveys. The table includes key details such as the botanical name, family, folk name, the plant part used, its culinary application, and the frequency of citation in traditional knowledge. A comparison of the species observed in 2004 and 2024 reveals a shift in the number of species recorded. In 2004, we documented 71 species, while in 2024, only 60 species were recorded (Table 2). Despite having nearly the same number of informants for both years, this drop is quite notable. Out of the 60 species recorded in 2024, only 29 species overlap with those documented in 2004.

Table 2.

Recorded wild food plants and local gastronomic uses in Central Tuscany

Botanical taxon or taxa	Data 2004	Data 2024		Family	Folk name(s)	Used plant part(s)	Recorded local culinary use(s)	Frequency of citation in the 2024 field study
Allium ampeloprasum L	P	P		Amaryllidaceae	Cipolla selvatica, Aglio selvatico	Leaves, Bulb	Seasoning	**
Allium roseum L	P	A		Amaryllidaceae	Porrazo, Porro selvatico	Leaves, Bulb	Seasoning
Allium vineale L	P	P		Amaryllidaceae	Porrandoni, Porri servatici, Cipolle servatici	Leaves, Bulb	Seasoning	**
Ammi majus L	P	A		Apiaceae		Aerial parts	Seasoning
Arbutus unedo L	P	A	Ericaceae		Scarbateli, Corbezzoli, Arbatre	Fruits	Consumed raw, liqueurs, jams	***
Asparagus acutifolius L	P	P	Asparagaceae		Asparago selvatico, asparago servatio, asparagi, Sparaci	Young shoots	Omelettes, pasta sauce, cooked with rice	***
Bellis perennis L	P	A	Asteraceae			Leaves, Flowers	Salads
Beta vulgaris L	P	P	Amaranthaceae		Bietola, Bietola selvatica	Aerial parts	Boiled, soups	***
Borago officinalis L	P	P	Boraginaceae		Borraggine, Borranea	Leaves, flowers	Boiled in mixtures, soups, fried, filling for ravioli	***
Bunias erucago L	P	A	Brassicaceae		Rapini	Leaves	Salads, mixed vegetables & soups	***
Campanula rapunculus L	P	A	Campanulaceae		Raponzolo	Leaves, Roots	Salads, mixed boiled greens	***
Capparis spinosa L	A	P	Brassicaceae		Capperi	Flower buds	Pickled	*
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik	P	A	Brassicaceae			Leaves	Mixed vegetables & soups
Castanea sativa Mill	A	P	Fagaceae		Castagne, Marroni	Fruits	Ballotte (boiled; boiled with wild fennel fruits or leaves; boiled with bay leaf and salt); frusciate (roasted on charcoal)	***
Cichorium intybus L	P	P	Asteraceae		Cicoria	Leaves	Boiled (erba cotta)	***
Clematis vitalba L	P	A	Ranunculaceae			Young Shoots	Omelettes, ravioli filling
Clinopodium nepeta (L.) Kuntze	A	P	Lamiaceae		Gniepitella, Niepitella	Leaves	Used to flavor snails	***
Coleostephus myconis (L.) Rchb.f	P	A	Asteraceae			Leaves	Salads
Cormus domestica (L.) Spach	A	P	Rosaceae		Sorbe, Sorbo,	Fruits	Kept in hay, to be eaten almost rotten	***
Corylus avellana L	A	P	Betulaceae		Nocciole	Fruits	Consumed fresh and dried, bread	***
Crataegus germanica (L.) Kuntze	A	P	Rosaceae		Nespole	Fruits	Fresh, should be preserved in hay	***
Crataegus monogyna Jacq	A	P	Rosaceae		Spine	Fruits	Fresh	*
Crepis leontodontoides All., C. sancta (L.) Bornm., C. setosa Haller f., C. vesicaria L	P	P	Asteraceae		Radicchio selvatico, Radichiella	Leaves	Salads, erba cotta	***
Cydonia oblonga Mill	A	P	Rosaceae		Mele cotogne, Cotogne	Fruits	Jam, desserts	**
Cynara cardunculus L	A	P	Asteraceae		Cardo	Leaves	Omelettes, boiled greens	*
Daucus carota L	P	A	Apiaceae			Leaves, Roots	Salads, mixed vegetables & soups
Diplotaxis muralis (L.) DC. and D. tenuifolia (L.) DC	P	P	Brassicaceae		Rucola selvatica, Rucola servatia	Leaves	Salads	**
Epilobium montanum L	P	A	Onagraceae			Leaves	Salads
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. (cultivated)	A	P	Rosaceae		Nespole gialle	Fruits	Fresh	*
Ficus carica L	A	P	Moraceae		Fico, Fio verdino	Pesudofruits	Eaten fresh, or eaten filled with walnuts inside; dried, traditionally to be eaten after soup; jam	**
Foeniculum vulgare Mill	P	P	Apiaceae		Fenucchio, Finocchio selvatico	Leaves, Stems	Flavoring, cooked vegetables	***
Fragaria vesca L	A	P	Rosaceae		Fragoline di bosco, Fragole selvatiche	Fruits	Fresh	**
Gladiolus italicus Mill	P	A	Iridaceae			Young Shoots	Field snack
Helminthotheca echioides (L.) Holub	P	P	Asteraceae		Radicchiella	Leaves	Boiled	*
Helosciadium nodiflorum (L.) W.D.J.Koch	P	A	Apiaceae			Leaves	Salads, flavoring
Juglans regia L	P	P	Juglandaceae		Noce	Green fruits, leaves; kernels	Liqueurs; consumed raw or dried	***
Juniperus communis L	P	A	Cupressaceae			Berries	Flavoring
Lactuca serriola L	P	A	Asteraceae			Leaves	Mixed vegetables & soups
Lamium maculatum (L.) L. and L. purpureum L	P	A	Lamiaceae			Leaves, Flowers	Snack
Leontodon hispidus L	P	A	Asteraceae			Leaves	Mixed vegetables & soups
Leucanthemum vulgare Lam	A	P	Asteraceae		Margherite	Leaves	Salads	*
Lobularia maritima (L.) Desv	A	P	Brassicaceae		Fiorellini bianchi	Leaves	Mixed boiled greens (erba cotta)	*
Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill	A	P	Rosaceae		Melini selvatici	Fruits	Jams	*
Malva sylvestris L	A	P	Malvaceae		Malva, Marva	Leaves	Erba cotta	*
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh	P	A	Lamiaceae			Leaves	Flavoring
Morus alba L. and M. nigra L	P	P	Moraceae		Gelso	Fruits (more)	Consumed fresh	**
Muscari comosum (L.) Mill	P	A	Asparagaceae			Bulb	Fried, pickled
Mutarda arvensis (L.) D.A.German	P	P	Brassicaceae		Rapini selvatici	Leaves	Erba cotta	***
Myrtus communis L	A	P	Myrtaceae		Mirto	Fruits	Liquors	*
Nasturtium officinale W.T.Aiton	A	P	Brassicaceae		Crescione	Leaves	Salads	*
Oenanthe pimpinelloides L	P	P	Apiaceae		Premmolo selvatico	Mixed vegetables and soups	Leaves	*
Origanum vulgare L	P	P	Lamiaceae		Oregano	Leaves and flowers	Flavoring	*
Oxalis corniculata L	P	A	Oxalidaceae			Leaves	Field snack
Papaver rhoeas L	P	P	Papaveraceae		Papavero rosso, Papavero selvatico	Leaves, roots	Mixed vegetables & soups	***
Picris hieracioides L	P	P	Asteraceae		Spargini, Aspraggine, Spraggine	Leaves	Mixed vegetables & soups	***
Pinus pinea L	A	P	Pinaceae		Pino	Fruits (pinoli)	Consumed fresh, or cooked in dessert (spongecake), added to sauces, on chestnut cake (castagnaccio)	***
Plantago lanceolata L	P	P	Plantaginaceae		Orecchie d'asino, Orecchi d'asino, Orecchioni	Leaves	Erba cotta	***
Portulaca oleracea L	P	P	Portulacaceae		Verdolaga	Leaves, Stems	Salads	***
Potentilla reptans var. reptans	P	A	Rosaceae			Leaves	Salads
Prunus cerasifera Ehrh	A	P	Rosaceae		Susine ciliege	Fruits	Consumed fresh	*
Prunus cerasus L	A	P	Rosaceae		Amarene	Fruits	Consumed fresh, jams	*
Prunus domestica L	A	P	Rosaceae		Susine selvatiche, susine moscine	Fruits	Consumed fresh, jams	*
Prunus spinosa L	A	P	Rosaceae		Prugnolo	Fruits	Jams	*
Punica granatum L	A	P	Lythraceae		Melograno	Fruits	Consumed fresh	*
Pyrus communis L	A	P	Rosaceae		Pere cosce	Fruits	Consumed fresh	*
Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. landra (Moretti ex DC.) Bonnier & Layens	P	P	Brassicaceae		Rapini, Rape selvatiche, Raponi	Leaves	Erba cotta	***
Reichardia picroides (L.) Roth	P	P	Asteraceae		Tenarepoli, Tenerepoli, Tenerapoli	Leaves	Salads, mixed vegetables & soups	**
Robinia pseudoacacia L	P	P	Fabaceae		Acacia	Flowers	Fried	*
Rosa canina L	P	A	Rosaceae			Fruits	Jams
Rubus caesius L. and R. ulmifolius Schott	P	A	Rosaceae		Lamponi selvatici	Young shoots; fruits	Omelettes, field snack; consumed raw, jams
Rumex acetosa L	A	P	Polygonaceae		Acetini, Acetosella	Leaves	Salads	**
Rumex conglomeratus Murray and R. cripsus L	P	A	Polygonaceae			Leaves	Mixed vegetables & soups
Ruscus aculeatus L	P	A	Rosaceae			Young shoots	Omelettes
Sambucus nigra L	P	P	Viburnaceae		Sambuco	Flowers, fruits	Fried, liqueurs	***
Sanguisorba minor Scop	P	P	Rosaceae		Pagnastrella	Leaves	Flavoring salads	*
Scabiosa atropurpurea subsp. maritima (L.) Arcang	P	A	Caprifoliaceae			Leaves	Mixed vegetables & soups
Sonchus oleraceus L	P	P	Asteraceae		Cicerbite	Leaves	Salads, mixed vegetables & soups	***
Sulla coronaria (L.) B.H.Choi & H.Ohashi	P	A	Fabaceae			Flowers	Field snack
Taraxacum sect. Taraxacum F.H.Wigg	P	P	Asteraceae		Tarassaco, Spegnilume, Piscialletto	Leaves	Salads, mixed vegetables & soups	***
Thymus serpyllum L	P	A	Lamiaceae			Leaves, Flowers	Flavoring
Trifolium repens L	A	P	Fabaceae		Trifoglio	Leaves	On bread, olive oil, and tomatoes (pane al pomodoro)—to enhance the flavor	*
Urospermum dalechampii (L.) Scop. ex F.W.Schmidt	P	P	Asteraceae		Radicchio selvatico, Radichiella	Leaves	Salads, mixed vegetables & soups	**
Urtica dioica L	P	P	Urticaceae		Ortica	Young leaves	Omelettes, pasta, ravioli filling, risotto, mixed vegetables & soups	***
Valeriana locusta L	P	P	Caprifoliaceae		Lattughini, Lattuga servatica	Leaves	Salads	**
Viola alba Besser	P	A	Violaceae			Leaves	Salads
Ziziphus jujuba Mill	P	P	Rhamnaceae		Zizzole, Giuggiole	Fruits	Consumed fresh	***

P: present, A: absent

***quoted by more than > 40% of study participants

**quoted by > 15% to 40% of study participants

*quoted only by 5% to 15% of study participants

Notably, species such as Allium ampeloprasum, Beta vulgaris, Cichorium intybus, Origanum vulgare, and Taraxacum officinale have maintained their presence over the two decades, indicating their sustained cultural and culinary significance. Furthermore, the table highlights similarities and potential shifts in usage patterns, such as changes in the preferred plant parts or culinary applications, reflecting evolving dietary habits or agricultural practices. The stable frequency of citation for many of these plants underscores their enduring role in traditional knowledge systems, reinforcing the importance of safeguarding both botanical resources and the associated cultural heritage.

Additionally, results showed that 42 species were only observed in 2004 but not in 2024 botanical species that were recorded in 2004 but were absent in the 2024 dataset, indicating a potential decline or disappearance from local ethnobotanical knowledge and use. Species such as Allium roseum, Apium nodiflorum (currently synonym of Helosciadium nodiflorum), Brassica rapa, Campanula rapunculus, Rosa canina, and Urtica dioica were cited in interviews conducted two decades ago but were not mentioned in the recent data collection.

This disappearance could be attributed to changes in land use. Land-use transformations, such as urbanization, agricultural intensification, and deforestation, have significantly altered natural habitats where wild food plants once thrived [30, 31]. As landscapes are converted for commercial agriculture, infrastructure development, or industrial expansion, wild plant populations decrease due to habitat loss. Research has shown that land-use changes can fragment ecosystems, disrupt plant-pollinator relationships, and reduce plant diversity, ultimately limiting access to foraging areas [32]. Overgrazing by livestock, excessive logging, and unsustainable agricultural practices can deplete soil nutrients, alter hydrological cycles, and disrupt natural ecosystems, making it difficult for wild food plants to regenerate [33].

Climate change further exacerbates habitat degradation by altering temperature and precipitation patterns, which can lead to droughts, shifts in growing seasons, and changes in plant phenology [34].

Socio-economic shifts, such as migration, formal education systems that prioritize Western knowledge, and the influence of modern lifestyles, have disrupted the transmission of this knowledge [32]. Some plants, such as Mentha suaveolens and Thymus serpyllum, which are traditionally used for herbal infusions, may have been replaced by commercially available alternatives, reducing their presence in local foraging and household use. Others, such as Daucus carota and Capsella bursa-pastoris, which were once more common as wild edibles or medicinal plants, may have become less recognized by younger generations. This trend highlights the dynamic nature of ethnobotanical knowledge and highlights the importance of documenting and preserving traditional plant uses. This environmental instability can result in the local extinction of certain wild food plants, making them unavailable for future generations.

Older generations, who hold extensive knowledge of plant identification, harvesting techniques, and culinary uses, often find fewer opportunities to pass this information to younger individuals [5, 35]. As younger generations become less involved in traditional subsistence activities, they lose direct exposure to these practices. Studies indicate that without active engagement in foraging and plant use, knowledge is lost within a single generation [36]. This decline is further compounded when local languages, often the carriers of ethnobotanical knowledge, are replaced by dominant national or global languages. The increasing availability of market-based foods has led to a shift away from traditional diets that relied on foraged wild plants. The globalized food industry promotes convenience, processed foods, and cash crops, reducing reliance on locally available, nutrient-rich wild foods [37]. As a result, dietary patterns have changed, with communities favoring store-bought products over wild-gathered foods, even when they are available.

Additionally, economic incentives encourage farmers to cultivate commercial crops rather than preserve traditional plant landscapes. Industrial agriculture favors high-yield crops over diverse wild species, further discouraging foraging and traditional food consumption. Research has shown that the decline in wild food plant use is closely linked to the commodification of food systems, where food choices are driven by convenience, affordability, and global supply chains rather than local ecological knowledge[20, 38].

Dataset (Table 2) and Fig. 2, revealing a total of 31 species, including Capparis spinosa, Castanea sativa, Corylus avellana, Cynara cardunculus, Eriobotrya japonica, Ficus carica, Olea europaea, and Punica granatum, appear in the more recent dataset, suggesting shifts in plant recognition, utilization, or availability. The documentation of 31 species in 2024 that were absent from the 2004 dataset suggests that while some ethnobotanical knowledge is being lost, other aspects are evolving. The appearance of fruit-bearing trees such as Mespilus germanica, Pyrus communis, and Prunus domestica in recent records indicates a potential resurgence in interest in traditional orchard management and home gardening. Additionally, the increased recognition of species like Myrtus communis and Valeriana locusta suggests a renewed appreciation for wild edible and medicinal plants, possibly driven by contemporary health trends advocating for natural and nutrient-rich food sources [10, 12]. Informants attributed the emergence of new plant uses to various sources, including formal education, social media, and interactions with urban or migrant communities. These channels have introduced novel culinary ideas and broadened the local repertoire, reflecting an ongoing exchange between traditional knowledge and contemporary influences.

Over the past two decades (2004–2024), significant shifts in plant family representation have been observed, with some families maintaining species diversity (e.g., Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Moraceae, and Rosaceae. Families like Fabaceae and Lamiaceae have shown a modest increase in species richness, which may indicate a growing cultural or agricultural interest in these plants. Notably, the category labeled “Others” has significantly expanded from 23 species in 2004 to 31 species in 2024, suggesting either the inclusion of new species into traditional use or improved knowledge documentation (Figs. 3, 4).

Fig. 3.

Botanical folk taxa overlapping within data collected in 2004 and 2024 conducted in the Central Tuscany region

Fig. 4.

The most important botanical families and the number of taxa distribution in the data collected in 2004 and 2024

These changes highlight the dynamic nature of ethnobotanical practices and emphasize the need for further research to understand the driving forces behind species disappearance and the implications for biodiversity conservation and cultural heritage.

Wild plant gastronomy and its temporal shifts

The comparison of culinary uses of wild plant species between the 2004 and 2024 datasets reveals significant shifts over the 20 years. Notably, the use of these plants in cooked vegetable dishes increased substantially from 1.7% in 2004 to 34.0% in 2024. This marked rise suggests an evolving trend toward integrating wild species into main meals, which may be linked to a broader gastronomic reappreciation of wild foods and the promotion of sustainable diets [39, 40]. Such changes might also reflect transformations in food preservation practices or improved access to certain species. Conversely, some traditional uses have declined: sweets and ravioli fillings, which were recorded in 2004, are absent in the 2024 data. This may indicate a reduction in the use of wild plants for desserts or specific festive dishes, possibly due to changing food preferences or the gradual erosion of ritual and seasonal culinary traditions [41, 42]

Between 2004 and 2024, culinary applications of wild plant species exhibited noticeable changes (Fig. 5). Cooked vegetables increased markedly from 1.7% to 34.0%, indicating a growing integration of wild plants into main dishes. Fried foods also maintained their relevance, increasing slightly from 3.5% to 7.5%. Uses in omelets, pasta, and liqueurs remained relatively stable over the two decades.

Fig. 5.

Percentage of species for each culinary use

Conversely, the use of species in mixed vegetables, salads, and soups declined significantly from 18.3% in 2004 to 5.7% (mixed vegetables) and 7.5% (salads) in 2024. Field snacks also dropped from 7.8% to 1.9%, suggesting a reduction in informal or foraged consumption contexts. Plant-based flavoring uses rose from 11.3% to 15.1%.

These culinary shifts suggest evolving dietary habits and food practices over the past two decades. The sharp rise in cooked vegetable applications may reflect a renewed interest in foraging and integrating wild plants into structured meals, as documented in other contemporary European contexts [39, 43]. This trend aligns with broader public health initiatives promoting plant-based diets for their nutritional and environmental benefits [44]. Additionally, changes in consumer preferences and the integration of traditional plants into modern gastronomy may have contributed to this shift [45, 46].

In contrast, the complete disappearance of pickled plant species and certain traditional preparations, such as ravioli fillings, suggests a decline in food preservation techniques that were once integral to local food systems. This decline may be attributed to the increased availability of industrially processed alternatives, which require less time and effort to prepare [5, 47]. Moreover, generational shifts in household labor dynamics and changing culinary traditions have played a role in the reduced practice of traditional food preservation methods [48].

Despite these transformations, the relatively stable or slightly increasing use of plants for fried foods, omelets, and flavoring suggests that certain culinary traditions have remained resilient. These preparations may hold cultural significance or be more adaptable to modern cooking practices, enabling their persistence [10].

Notably, the sharp decline in the consumption of field snacks highlights the diminishing role of informal, foraged plant consumption. This trend reflects a broader decline in local foraging traditions, which has been widely observed due to urbanization, changing land-use patterns, and a growing reliance on commercially available foods[39]. Reduced engagement with foraging not only affects dietary diversity but also signals a potential loss of traditional ecological knowledge related to plant identification, seasonality, and harvesting techniques [49].

The comparison of plant parts used in 2004 and 2024 reveals notable shifts in culinary preferences and utilization patterns over the 20 years. Leaves were the most commonly used plant part in both years, but their presence significantly declined from 60 species in 2004 to 33 species in 2024.

The observed decline in the use of leaves reflects a broader reduction in plant diversity utilized for culinary purposes. This shift may be attributed to multiple interrelated factors, including changes in food preparation methods, a decline in intergenerational knowledge transmission regarding the identification and use of wild leafy greens, and the reduced availability of certain species due to environmental changes and land-use shifts [48, 49]. Traditional wild leafy greens, which were once integral to local diets, have become less accessible as urbanization and agricultural intensification have altered natural habitats ([25, 39]. Additionally, the growing preference for cultivated leafy vegetables over foraged varieties, influenced by market accessibility and food safety concerns, has contributed to this decline [50].

This decrease suggests a potential reduction in the collection or use of leafy species, possibly due to changing dietary habits, agricultural availability, or environmental factors affecting plant growth. Conversely, the use of fruits in culinary applications increased substantially, rising from 6 species in 2004 to 22 species in 2024.

In contrast, the increased use of fruits suggests a growing reliance on fruit-bearing plants, which may be driven by changing agricultural practices, improved commercial availability, and dietary preferences that emphasize fresh or processed fruit products. The expansion of fruit cultivation, often supported by agricultural policies and market demand, has made a wider variety of fruits more accessible and economically viable [51]. Furthermore, the global rise in health-conscious diets, which promote fruit consumption due to its nutritional benefits, may have reinforced this trend [44]. The increased processing and commercialization of fruits into juices, jams, and dried products may also play a role in their enhanced culinary presence [52].

Flowers, which are often used for their delicate flavors and aesthetic appeal in cooking, saw a slight decrease, from 10 species in 2004 to 7 species in 2024. Similarly, roots showed a decline from 8 to 4 species, suggesting a possible decrease in traditional root-based preparations.

Other plant parts, such as green nuts and stems, remained relatively stable, with minimal change in their usage over time. Green nuts were represented by only one species in both datasets, while stems remained constant at two species, indicating that these parts were never a dominant feature in local culinary practices.

Overall, these trends reflect an evolution in plant-based food traditions, with a noticeable decline in leafy plant use and a significant rise in fruit utilization. Figure 6 provides a visual representation of these changes, illustrating the shifting balance between different plant parts in traditional and contemporary culinary practices.

Fig. 6.

Changes in the utilization of plant parts for culinary purposes in 2004 and 2024

The analysis of plant diversity used in culinary practices from 2004 to 2024 reveals a noticeable decline in both the richness and evenness of plant species used. This decline is supported by the reduction in the number of botanical families, as discussed earlier.

The Simpson index measures the likelihood that two randomly chosen plants will belong to different species. A higher probability suggests more diversity, while a lower probability indicates less diversity, increasing slightly from 0.88 in 2004 to 0.94 in 2024.

While the increase indicates that the distribution of species use may have become slightly more uneven, the change is relatively minimal. This suggests that, while there has been a narrowing of culinary diversity, the shift may not be as drastic as anticipated, pointing to a continued reliance on a smaller group of species. However, this minimal difference might still reflect a broader trend of reduced species usage driven by knowledge loss and generational changes.

Further evidence of this decline is seen in the Shannon index, which decreased significantly from 3.90 in 2004 to 1.9 in 2024. Moreover, the Chao1 index, which estimates the total species richness, also dropped from 10.4 in 2004 to 6.0 in 2024, further indicating a reduction in the number of species being used.

The decline in the Shannon index and the reduction in the Chao1 index over time confirm a significant loss in culinary plant diversity. The Shannon index, which measures both richness and evenness in plant species usage, reflects a decrease in the variety of plant species being incorporated into local diets. Meanwhile, the Chao1 index, an estimate of species richness, indicates a drop in the number of species being used or available for culinary purposes, suggesting a homogenization of the local plant food culture. These findings underscore the urgent need for conservation efforts to preserve both botanical resources and traditional knowledge systems [3, 53, 54]. The loss of plant diversity can be directly linked to changes in land use, agricultural intensification, and the erosion of traditional knowledge [55].

The disappearance of entire botanical families from ethnobotanical records is particularly concerning, as it illustrates the vulnerability of plant-based traditions to socio-environmental changes [31, 35, 56]. These families, once abundant in local food cultures, may be disappearing due to factors like agricultural practices, urbanization, and climate change, which alter natural habitats and reduce biodiversity [49]. On the other hand, the increase in recorded species within families such as Fabaceae and Lamiaceae suggests that certain plant groups may be gaining importance, possibly due to shifting agricultural trends, such as the growing interest in legumes (Fabaceae) for their nutritional benefits, or the expanded use of aromatic herbs from the Lamiaceae family in modern cuisine [57, 58]. This shift may also reflect broader changes in culinary or medicinal preferences, where health-conscious diets emphasize specific plant groups known for their benefits, such as legumes for protein or herbs for flavor and medicinal properties [57, 59].

The significant difference between the two years suggests that traditional knowledge regarding plant species and their culinary uses has been lost or is at risk of fading away, likely due to intergenerational knowledge transmission gaps and changes in food habits. The declining diversity indices not only highlight a shift toward a more limited range of culinary plant species but also underscore the loss of culinary biodiversity. This shift, as shown in Fig. 7 in the Shannon index, reflects broader cultural and ecological changes where traditional knowledge is increasingly under threat.

Fig. 7.

Comparison of Simpson and Shannon diversity indices for the botanical family plant in Central Tuscany in 2004 and 2024

Impact of demographic characteristics, climate change, land use, and agricultural practices on the transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge

The analysis of demographic characteristics, agricultural background, land-use change, and climate factors revealed significant influences on the transmission and retention of ethnobotanical knowledge. The age distribution indicated that 78% of respondents were between 65 and 80 years old, while only 22% were 55 years or younger. Older individuals demonstrated significantly higher retention of traditional plant knowledge (OR = 1.2, β = 0.4, p < 0.041). The significant association between age and knowledge retention underscores the crucial role of older generations in preserving traditional plant knowledge. Studies have shown that traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is often accumulated over a lifetime, and older individuals act as key repositories of this information [60, 61].

Education level also played a crucial role in knowledge retention. Among respondents, 57% had an elementary school certificate, 27% had completed secondary education or higher, and 16% had no formal education. Those with secondary education or higher were significantly more likely to retain and articulate ethnobotanical knowledge (OR = 2.3, β = 0.7, p < 0.036). Education emerged as another important factor influencing knowledge retention. While some studies suggest that formal education can lead to the erosion of traditional knowledge [62], our findings align with recent research indicating that education can enhance knowledge organization and dissemination, particularly when integrated with traditional ecological perspectives [63]. Higher education levels may allow individuals to engage in more structured learning about plants, access written records, and contribute to the documentation of traditional practices [64, 65]. Interestingly, respondents with higher levels of formal education tended to mention a broader range of species, suggesting a more academic or theoretical recognition of plant diversity. However, this did not always translate into practical culinary use. Many of the species cited by highly educated individuals were not frequently used in daily cooking, indicating a possible disconnect between botanical knowledge and everyday food practices. This reflects a trend where plant knowledge is retained in academic or cultural memory, but is less embedded in routine household use.

An agricultural background (current or past) was reported by 43% of participants, while 57% had non-agricultural backgrounds. Individuals with an agricultural background exhibited significantly greater ethnobotanical knowledge retention (OR = 1.5, β = 1.2, p < 0.017). Agricultural background was found to be a strong predictor of ethnobotanical knowledge retention, reinforcing the link between land-based livelihoods and traditional plant use. Similar patterns have been reported in other studies, where individuals actively engaged in farming and foraging exhibit significantly higher plant knowledge compared to those without agricultural experience [66, 67]. However, the declining number of individuals engaged in small-scale farming and traditional agricultural practices poses a challenge to knowledge transmission. As agricultural landscapes shift due to mechanization and urban expansion, traditional plant uses may become obsolete, further distancing younger generations from local plant knowledge [68]. Supporting smallholder farming, promoting agroecological practices, and fostering local food networks could serve as viable strategies to sustain ethnobotanical knowledge within rural communities.

Over the past two decades, climatic changes have also affected knowledge transmission by altering plant biodiversity and availability. A significant temperature increase of 0.88 °C was recorded (OR = 0.66, β = −0.25, p < 0.042), alongside a statistically significant decline in annual rainfall by 3% to 6% (OR = 0.83, β = − 0.92, p < 0.016) (Table 3). The observed warming trend and reduced rainfall have altered local plant biodiversity, affecting the availability of moisture-dependent species. Climate change-induced shifts in species distribution have been widely documented and are known to impact TEK by reducing the accessibility of key plants [17, 34]. As plant habitats become less stable due to changing climatic conditions, knowledge linked to those specific species is likely to decline. Previous research has shown that when plants become rare or disappear from local landscapes, the associated knowledge is often lost within a generation [69]. This underscores the need for conservation efforts that not only protect plant biodiversity but also ensure that ethnobotanical knowledge remains relevant in changing environmental contexts.

Table 3.

Factors influencing knowledge transmission, plant biodiversity, and availability wild food plants: logistic regression analysis

Variable	Frequency n (%)	Odds Ratio	β Coefficient	Std	P-value
Age group
55 years and below	8 (22%)	0.9	− 0.74	0.28	0.738
65–80 years	29 (78%)	1.2	0.4	0.19	< 0.041
Gender
Male	14 (38%)	1.09	0.83	0.31	0.691
Female	23 (62%)	3.42	1.26	0.54	0.084
Education level
No formal education	6 (16%)	− 0.47	1.52	0.62	0.916
Elementary school certificate	21 (57%)	1.8	0.13	0.45	0.849
Secondary school or higher	10 (27%)	2.3	0.7	0.29	< 0.036
Agricultural background
Agricultural background (current or past)	16 (43%)	1.5	1.2	0.38	< 0.017
Non-agricultural background	21 (57%)	2.18	4.27	0.87	0.183
Land-use change
Loss of agricultural areas	2.74%	3.61	− 0.15	0.51	0.642
Climate Factors	Change (e.g., °C or %)
Change in Temperature (°C)	0.88 °C	0.66	− 0.25	0.09	< 0.042
Rainfall (ml)	− 3 to − 6%	0.83	− 0.92	0.27	< 0.016

These findings highlight the dual impact of socio-economic and environmental factors on the transmission of traditional plant knowledge, emphasizing the need for conservation efforts that integrate both cultural heritage and ecological sustainability.

The Central Tuscan gastronomy of wild food plants

Women were not only the custodians of knowledge related to plant foraging but also the designated cooks, with the preparation of these ingredients typically assigned to them. The culinary use of these plants was primarily categorized into two main preparations: Erba cotta and Insalata, referring to whether the plants were cooked or consumed raw. Erba cotta (Fig. 8) represents a staple dish in the local cuisine. Although seemingly simple, once cooked, the herbs could complement a variety of dishes, including meat, vegetables, and savory pies. The proportions of different plants used in Erba cotta were not arbitrary; each woman had her preferred combination, often passed down to her daughters. Naturally, the composition of Erba cotta varied according to the seasons, the availability of specific plant species, and the geographical area in which the vegetation was foraged.

Fig. 8.

Local preparing erba cotta (boiled mix of cultivated and wild greens)

Recent studies have emphasized the significance of the phytochemicals present in these edible plants. A growing body of research focuses on the bitter compounds found in foraged plants and their associated health benefits [6]. While some of these compounds may be lost during the boiling process, others remain intact when the plants are consumed raw in salads, often combined with cultivated varieties to balance the flavors. Despite this, bitterness remained a popular taste, sometimes intentionally incorporated into dishes, as exemplified by using bitter olives in various meat preparations.

Transmission of knowledge: foraged plants

As previously noted, plant foraging has traditionally been an activity predominantly led by women. Consequently, despite being commonly consumed by both men and women, older male interviewees demonstrated limited knowledge regarding the identification, collection, and sourcing of foraged plants. One participant expressed (Fig. 9):

"Yes, I know the plants and I could differentiate most of them or at least the most common ones, but I have never tried searching for or collecting them, so I wouldn’t know how to. I wish my mother had taught me how, and I still would like to learn."

Fig. 9.

Mix of leaves (cultivated beet and non-cultivated wild greens), ready to be cooked

Many of the older women interviewed are now physically weaker, often unable to spend the time required to bend down and collect the plants. As the sole guardians of this knowledge, their declining physical capacity underscores the imminent risk of this cultural knowledge disappearing. Younger women, who lack the necessary skills, rely on their mothers and grandmothers to supply these wild ingredients. Without this intergenerational transmission, the continued use of foraged plants is at risk of ceasing altogether.

Although some younger men express interest in learning to identify and gather plants, the absence of time and knowledgeable mentors hinders their ability to develop foraging skills. This limitation contributes to the gradual loss of the local gastronomic knowledge (LGK) and deprives the community of access to the beneficial phytochemicals previously discussed [25, 63].

Several younger interviewees also mentioned erba cotta, but when asked about the specific plants that constituted the dish, their responses often included cultivated varieties, such as Beta vulgaris and cultivated Brassicaceae, or they indicated that the dish was procured already prepared from professional farmers. One participant stated:

"I do not really know which herbs go into erba cotta, but I eat it every week. I get it ready from a local farmer, from whom I buy all my vegetables. I always buy ingredients from people I know—the vegetables from him and the game from my hunting friends."

A locals’ favorite: the gastronomy of wild asparagus

The foraging and consumption of wild asparagus warrant particular attention (Fig. 10), owing to its widespread use and local significance. It is one of the most consumed, cherished, and well-known wild ingredients in Valdera.

Fig. 10.

Foraged wild asparagus

In spring, wild asparagus Asparagus acutifoliusis commonly found along countryside paths or even on roadsides with south-facing banks. The plant is easily recognizable and difficult to confuse with other potentially harmful botanicals due to its distinctive bushy, dry, old growth, and the young shoots emerging near the base. Eighteen out of nineteen interviewees reported foraging and consuming wild asparagus from a young age, initially accompanied by parents or grandparents during spring walks, where the shoots would be collected for cooking later in the day.

This widespread knowledge has facilitated the development of various (albeit simple) culinary preparations. One such dish is"Frittata agli Asparagi"(Fig. 11), an asparagus omelette, for which the shoots may or may not be blanched in boiling water beforehand to soften the tougher parts closer to the base. This blanching is typically done when the asparagus is not consumed on the same day as it is foraged, as, although kept in water to retain moisture, the stems tend to harden quickly. Asparagus can also be chopped and cooked with garlic and onions to create pasta sauces or to flavor risotto.

Fig. 11.

Frittata di asparagi (wild asparagus omelette), a popular preparation in Valdera

Although nearly all interviewees, except for two, still consume asparagus either by foraging for it themselves or by obtaining it from friends who do, the plant's relevance in the local diet appears to be diminishing. Most younger generations report rarely cooking Asparagus acutifolius, while older individuals continue to incorporate it into their diets frequently during late winter and spring, often going foraging once a week and collecting enough for several meals. While the collection of wild asparagus is primarily carried out by men, women are equally capable of locating it, although they often refrain due to the dirty nature of the activity and the risk of being scratched by brambles. Women, however, are typically responsible for deciding the culinary preparations and cooking the foraged asparagus for the family.

Wild mushrooms and animals in the study area

Table 4 shows data on 24 locally foraged mushroom taxa and 62 traditionally fished, hunted, and foraged wild animals used in local gastronomy.

Table 4.

Recorded mushroom species and wild animal taxa and local gastronomic preparations in the study area

Fungal/wild animals taxon	Fungal family	Folk name(s)	Traditional local gastronomic uses	Percentage (%) of citations by over 65 y.o. study participants	Percentage (%) of citations under 65 y.o. study participants
Agaricus bisporus (J.E. Lange) Imbach	Agaricaceae	Prataioli	Pasta, garlic, and sage, fried	31.0	0
Amanita caesarea (Scop.) Pers	Amanitaceae	Ovuli, Cocchi	Raw: pasta, garlic, and sage; fried: pasta sauce with garlic, parsley and cream; cooked on the grill	34.5	38
Armillaria novae-zelandiae (G. Stev.) Boesew	Physalacriaceae	Sementini, Chiodini	Pasta sauce, preserved"sott'olio", fried, cooked on the grill, cooked with tomatoes, garlic, sage, eaten on bread as"companatico"; fried	27.6	13
Boletus edulis Bull	Boletaceae	Porcini, Morecci	Sliced raw with cheese; fried; pasta sauce, with tomatoes, garlic and sage; grilled; raw with salt and oil; preserved in oil"sott'olio", porcini ragout, pasta sauce with garlic, parsley and cream	41.4	88
Cantharellus cibarius Fr	Hydnaceae	Gallettini, Finferli, Galletti	Preserved"sott'olio", fried	34.5	25
Clitocybe nebularis (Batsch) P. Kumm	Clitocybaceae	Cimbali		6.9	0
Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers	Hydnaceae	Trombette dei morti	Dried, milled and powdered to season pasta dishes	10.3	0
Cyclocybe aegerita (V. Brig.) Vizzini	Tubariaceae	Pioppini, Murecci	Pasta sauce; coked in tomato sauce and garlic, risotto; fried; cooked on the grill; cooked with tomatoes, garlic and sage (also eaten on bread"companatico"; pizza, eaten with meat;	41.4	50
Grifola frondosa (Dicks.) Gray	Grifolaceae	Ceppe	Cooked with tomato sauce and garlic	3.4	0
Hygrophorus penarius Fr	Hygrophoraceae	Lardaioli bianchi, Lardaioli	Preserved"sott'olio"; cooked with tomato sauce, garlic and sage; fried; eaten with bread as"companatico"; grilled; eaten with meat	41.4	13
Hygrophorus russula (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Bataille	Hygrophoraceae	Lardaioli rossi	Preserved"sott'olio"; cooked with tomato sauce, garlic and sage; fried; eaten with bread as"companatico"; grilled; eaten with meat	6.9	0
Hygrophorus spp.	Hygrophoraceae	Salliere		3.4	0
Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Gray	Russulaceae	Pineggiole	Grilled; fried	20.7	0
Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer	Agaricaceae	Mazze di tamburo, Bubbole, Pamele	Grilled; dried, milled, powdered to season meat	24.1	0
Pleurotus spp.	Pleurotaceae	Orecchiette, Lingue		10.3	0
Polyporus septosporus P.K. Buchanan & Ryvarden	Polyporaceae	Lingue		6.9	0
Ramaria botrytis (Pers.) Bourdot	Gomphaceae	Didole	Pasta sauce	6.9	0
Ramaria flava (Schaeff.) Quél	Gomphaceae	Manine, Finferli		10.3	0
Russula spp.	Russulaceae	Rosselle, Russule, Russelle	Fried; mixed with other mushrooms to be eaten on bread; cooked with garlic, tomatoes, sage; grilled; eaten with meat	37.9	25
Russula spp.	Russulaceae	Rosselle bianche, Bigelle		13.8	0
Suillus spp.	Suillaceae	Pinaioli, Pinaroli	Fried; cooked with garlic and parsley; cooked with garlic, tomatoes and sage; eaten on bread as"companatico"	41.4	25
Tuber borchii Vittad	Tuberaceae	Tartufo marzolo, Tartufo bianchetto	White risotto with truffle; stuffed chicken with truffle; stuffed pheasant with truffle; frittata with truffle; truffle butter	3.4	0
Tuber magnatum Pico	Tuberaceae	Tartufo bianco	White risotto with truffle; stuffed chicken with truffle; stuffed pheasant with truffle; frittata with truffle; truffle butter	3.4	0
Tuber melanosporum Vittad	Tuberaceae	Tartufo nero	White risotto with truffle; stuffed chicken with truffle; stuffed pheasant with truffle; frittata with truffle; truffle butter	3.4	0
Fished animals
Alburnus arborella (Bonaparte, 1841)	Cyprinidae	Pesciolini, Arborelle	Cooked with tomatoes, garlic and parsley; deep fried	20.7	25
Ameiurus melas (Rafinesque, 1820)	Lctaluridae	Pesce gatto	Deep fried; stewed with tomatoes, garlic and herbs	3.4	13
Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus, 1758)	Anguillidae	Serpenti d'acqua, Anguille	Grilled on coal in the fireplace, with sage, rosemary, garlic; roasted in the oven; pan-fried, cooked with tomatoes and garlic; deep-fried; ragout for pasta dishes; deep-fried young eels	27.6	63
Barbus barbus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Cyprinidae	Barbi	Pan-fried with garlic, tomatoes and herbs; stewed with tomato sauce, garlic and herbs	13.8	13
Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758)	Cyprinidae	Carpa	Grilled; stewed with tomato sauce, garlic and herbs; oven roasted with garlic and herbs	20.7	0
Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Centrarchidae	Persico	Cooked with tomatoes, garlic and parsley; roasted in the oven with breadcrumbs; grilled on coal in the fireplace	10.3	0
Potamon fluviatile (Herbst, 1785)	Potamidae	Granchi		6.9	0
Squalius squalus (Bonaparte, 1837)	Cyprinidae	Gavedano, Cavedano	Stewed with tomato sauce, garlic and herbs; panfried, cooked with garlic and tomatoes	10.3	13
Tinca tinca (Linnaeus, 1758)	Cyprinidae	Tinche		6.9	0
Unio elongatulus (C. Pfeiffer, 1825)	Unionidae	Arselloni, Arselle, Arselle di fiume	Stewed with tomato sauce, garlic and herbs; cooked with Clinopodium nepeta, garlic and parsley	27.6	0
Hunted animals
Alauda arvensis (Linnaeus, 1758)	Alaudidae	Allodola	Skewers with garlic, parsley and black pepper	3.4	13
Alectoris graeca (Meisner, 1804)	Phasianidae	Coturnice	Cooked in a pot with tomato sauce, celery, carrots, onions, olives and herbs	0.0	13
Alectoris rufa (Linnaeus, 1758)	Phasianidae	Pernice	Skewers with garlic, parsley and black pepper	3.4	13
Anas crecca (Linnaeus, 1758)	Anatidae	Alzavola		3.4	0
Anas platyrhynchos (Linnaeus, 1758)	Anatidae	Germano	Oven roasted with sage; cooked in a pot with tomato sauce, celery, carrot, onions, olives and herbs	10.3	13
Anthus pratensis (Linnaeus, 1758)	Motacilliade	Prisolle		3.4	0
Anthus trivialis (Linnaeus, 1758)	Motacilliade	Prispollone		3.4	0
Aythya ferina (Linnaeus, 1758)	Anatidae	Muriglione		3.4	0
Capreolus capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Cervidae	Capriolo	Ragout for pasta dishes (tomato sauce, celery, carrot, onions, herbs, spices); salmì, marinated with wine, celery, carrots, onions, garlic, sage, rosemary, black pepper, overnight, then cooked in a pot with celery, carrots, onion, tomato sauce, spices and herbs	17.2	38
Carduelis carduelis (Linnaeus, 1758)	Fringillidae	Cardellini		10.3	0
Cervus elaphus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Cervidae	Cervo	Ragout for pasta dishes (tomato sauce, celery, carrot, onions, herbs, spices); salmì, marinated with wine, celery, carrots, onions, garlic, sage, rosemary, black pepper, overnight, then cooked in a pot with celery, carrots, onion, tomato sauce, spices and herbs	3.4	38
Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus, 1758)	Ciconiidae	Trampoliere		6.9	0
Coccothraustes coccothraustes (Linnaeus, 1758)	Fringillidae	Frusone, Frosone	Skewers with garlic, herbs and black pepper	3.4	13
Columba livia (Gmelin, JF, 1789)	Columbidae	Piccione	Ragout for pasta dishes	0.0	25
Columba palumbus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Columbidae	Colombo, Colombaccio	Ragout for pasta dishes; oven roasted with garlic, herbs and black pepper; cooked in a pot with sage, bay leaves, diced pork, a little tomato sauce	0.0	50
Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus, 1758)	Phasianidae	Quaglie		10.3	13
Dama dama (Linnaeus, 1758)	Cervidae	Daino	Ragout for pasta dishes (tomato sauce, celery, carrot, onions, herbs, spices); salmì, marinated with wine, celery, carrots, onions, garlic, sage, rosemary, black pepper, overnight, then cooked in a pot with celery, carrots, onion, tomato sauce, spices and herbs	3.4	25
Erithacus rubecula (Linnaeus, 1758)	Muscicapidae	Pittirossi, Pettirossi	Roasted with sage; skewers with garlic, parsley and black pepper; cooked in pots with garlic, herbs, black pepper and a little tomato sauce	31.0	25
Felis catus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Felidae	Gatti		17.2	0
Fringilla coelebs (Linnaeus, 1758)	Fringillidae	Fringuelli	Roasted with sage; skewers with garlic, herbs and black pepper; cooked in pots with garlic, herbs and a little tomato sauce; roasted in a pot with sage, bay leaf, diced pork meat, a little tomato sauce; skewers with sausage, bread and pork cubes	27.6	38
Fringilla montifringilla (Linnaeus, 1758)	Fringillidae	Peppole	Roasted with sage	6.9	0
Gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus, 1758)	Scolopacidae	Beccaccini		3.4	0
Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Rallidae	Gallinella d'acqua		3.4	0
Garrulus glandarius (Linneaus, 1758)	Corvidae	Ghiandaia	Roasted with sage	10.3	0
Hystrix cristata (Linnaeus, 1758)	Hystricidae	Istrice	Roasted like pork ribs; cooked in a pot with celery, carrot, onion, rosemary, black pepper and tomato sauce; tagliata, grilled like a steak; roasted in a wood oven; cooked in a pot"cacciatora"style with a lot of spices	34.5	75
Lepus europaeus (Pallas, 1778)	Leporidae	Lepre	Ragout for pasta dishes; oven roasted with garlic, herbs and spices; salmì, marinated with wine, celery, carrots, onions, garlic, sage, rosemary, black pepper, overnight, then cooked in a pot with celery, carrots, onion, tomato sauce, spices and herbs; cooked in a pot"cacciatora"style	41.4	75
Oryctolagus cuniculus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Leporidae	Lapino, Laprino, Coniglio selvatico	Salmì, marinated with wine, celery, carrots, onions, garlic, sage, rosemary, black pepper, overnight, then cooked in a pot with celery, carrots, onion, tomato sauce, spices and herbs; cooked in a pot"cacciatora"style; cooked in a pot with bay leaf, rosemary, garlic, onion, no carrot	20.7	38
Ovis aries musimon (Pallas, 1811)	Bovidae	Muflone		3.4	0
Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Passeridae	Passerotti, Uccellini	Skewers, with garlic, herbs and black pepper; cooked in a pot with garlic herbs and a little tomato sauce; cooked in a pot with sage, garlic and black pepper; cooked in a pot with sage, bay leaf, diced pork meat with little tomato sauce; skewers with sausage, bread and diced pork; skewers with"rigatino"and bread; skewers with pork sausage; oven roasted with garlic, herbs and spices; grilled with garlic, herbs and black pepper; deep fried	41.4	38
Perdix perdix (Linnaeus, 1758)	Phasianidae	Starna	Oven roasted with sage, garlic and spices; skewers with garlic, herbs and black pepper; cooked in a pot with celery, carrot, onion, herbs; salmì, marinated with wine, celery, carrots, onions, garlic, sage, rosemary, black pepper, overnight, then cooked in a pot with celery, carrots, onion, tomato sauce, spices and herbs	13.8	13
Phasianus colchicus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Phasianidae	Fagiano	Pheasant broth (better if the female); cooked in a pot with celery, carrot, onions, herbs and tomato sauce; oven roasted with sage and garlic;"cacciatora"style, celery, onion, carrot and bitter olives; ragout for pasta dishes; cooked in a pot with sage, bay leaf, diced pork meat, a little tomato sauce; grilled on coal in the fireplace	41.4	63
Pica pica (Linnaeus, 1758)	Corvidae	Gazze, Gazzere	Boiled for broth	10.3	0
Scolopax rusticola (Linnaeus, 1758)	Scolopacidae	Beccacce	Oven roasted with herbs, garlic and black pepper; the lord of the land would eat the offal but not the meat	6.9	0
Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus, 1758)	Anatidae	Mestolone	Oven roasted with sage, garlic and black pepper	6.9	0
Streptopelia turtur (Linnaeus, 1758)	Columbidae	Tortore	Oven roasted with herbs, garlic and black pepper; cooked in a pot"cacciatora"style, with celery, carrot and onion, tomato sauce and bitter olives; ragout for pasta dishes; roasted in a pot with sage, bay leaf, diced pork, a little tomato sauce	17.2	38
Sturnus vulgaris (Linnaeus, 1758)	Sturnidae	Storni	Oven roasted with herbs, garlic and black pepper	31.0	25
Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758)	Suidae	Cinghiale, Cigniale	Grilled steaks, preserved as hams, salmì, marinated with wine, celery, carrots, onions, garlic, sage, rosemary, black pepper, overnight, then cooked in a pot with celery, carrots, onion, tomato sauce, spices and herbs; ragout for pasta dishes; oven roasted with garlic, herbs and black pepper	34.5	88
Sylvia atricapilla (Linnaeus, 1758)	Sylviidae	Capinera	Oven roasted with sage, garlic, black pepper	13.8	0
Sylvia hortensis (Gmelin, 1789)	Sylviidae	Capibigie	Oven roasted with sage, garlic, black pepper; cooked in a pot with herbs, garlic and a little tomato sauce; skewers with garlic, herbs and black pepper	10.3	0
Sylvilagus floridanus (J. A. Allen, 1890)	Leporidae	Mini lepre, Coniglio selvatico	Oven roasted with herbs, garlic and black pepper; salmì, marinated with wine, celery, carrots, onions, garlic, sage, rosemary, black pepper, overnight, then cooked in a pot with celery, carrots, onion, tomato sauce, spices and herbs	3.4	0
Turdus iliacus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Turdidae	Sasselli	Skewers with garlic, herbs and black pepper	3.4	13
Turdus merula (Linnaeus, 1758)	Turdidae	Merlo	Oven roasted with garlic, herbs and black pepper; grilled with garlic, herbs and black pepper, skewers with garlic, herbs and black pepper	34.5	13
Turdus philomelos (C. L. Brehm, 1831)	Turdidae	Tordo	Oven roasted with garlic, herbs and black pepper; grilled with garlic, herbs and black pepper, skewers with garlic, herbs and black pepper	31.0	25
Turdus pilaris (Linnaeus, 1758)	Turdidae	Cesene	Skewers with garlic, herbs and black pepper	0.0	13
Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Charadriidae	Pavoncella, Fifa		3.4	0
Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758)	Canidae	Volpi		3.4	0
Foraged animals
Cantareus apertus (Born, 1778)	Helicidae	Marugiole	Cooked in a pot with celery, carrot, onion, sage and Clinopodium nepeta, tomato sauce or fresh tomatoes,"cacciucco"when wetter; sometimes boiled first, removed from the shell, then cooked"cacciucco"style; boiled and roasted; stewed with garlic, celery, carrot, onion, tomato sauce, bread and black cabbage	37.9	25
Cornu aspersum (O. F. Müller, 1774)	Helicidae	Chioccioloni	Cooked in a pot with celery, carrot, onion, sage and tomatoes sauce, Clinopodium nepeta, or wetter"cacciucco"; cooked on coal like chestnuts (in their shell or boiled first and picked out of the shell); cooked in a pot with garlic, parsley and tomato sauce; stewed with garlic, celery, carrot, onion, tomato sauce, bread and black cabbage	41.4	13
Eobania vermiculata (O. F. Muller, 1774)	Helicidae	Chiocciole, Chiocciole bianche, Chiocciolini bianchi; Chiocciolini	Cooked in a pot with celery, carrot, onion, sage and Clinopodium nepeta, tomato sauce or fresh tomatoes,"cacciucco"when wetter; sometimes boiled first, removed from the shell, then cooked"cacciucco"style; boiled and roasted; stewed with garlic, celery, carrot, onion, tomato sauce, bread and black cabbage; often cooked with a 30% of Cornu aspersum; snail ragout for pasta dishes	41.4	88
Erinaceus europaeus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Erinaceidae	Riccio	Cooked in a pot with celery, carrot, onion, sage and tomato sauce; blanched first to remove thorns, cooked like wild boar (the back considered the best part)	34.5	25
Pelophylax kl. esculentus (Linnaeus, 1758)	Ranidae	Rane, Ranocchi, Ranocchie	Kept for a night in water to inflate, crumbed and fried; cooked in a pot with celery, carrot, onion, garlic, herbs and tomato sauce; fried with flour and eggs	27.6	38
Theba pisana (Muller, 1774)	Helicidae	Chiocciole piccole bianche	Used to bulk up recipes with other snails;"cacciucco"with onion, celery, carrot, Clinopodium nepeta, tomato sauce, with liquid	13.8	0

These activities, along with their associated culinary practices, are primarily embedded in the memories of the study participants, with some still being practiced today. They reflect the heritage of wild foods in the study area. The majority of the citations were provided by the elderly participants, underscoring that local foraging and hunting knowledge is largely held by a few community members. In most cases, the recorded uses pertain to recollections rather than current practices.

The silent hunt: gathering mushrooms

The forests of Valdera can be considered the"wildest"ecosystems in the region, ranging from small, managed woodlands, where trees are periodically cut for firewood and forest regeneration, to larger, unmanaged areas, typically only intervened upon by official bodies for specific purposes. Informants confirmed that while women predominantly manage and possess detailed knowledge of herbs and the areas surrounding homes, the forests are more commonly understood and frequented by men. As a result, men are the primary custodians of ethnomycological knowledge, which has been accumulated over the years and passed down through generations. A total of 24 mushroom species were reported and cataloged, though it is important to note that more species are consumed, even if informants were unable to accurately identify them, thus complicating their classification.

Of particular interest is the collection of Russula spp. mushrooms, a group that includes some mildly toxic species. These mushrooms are gathered and consumed by all but one of the older informants. One participant stated:

"The'rosselle'(Russulae) are all edible and good. There are two types: one with a red cap, the rosselle, and the other with a grayish color, the'bigelle'."

Contrasting opinions were offered regarding the toxicity of this mushroom. Another informant explained:

"I collect and eat rosselle, but I mix them with other mushrooms because they are slightly toxic. We don't eat them on their own. The redder they are, the more toxic they become."

A further precautionary method was shared by another informant:

"When you cook rosselle, you must place a garlic clove in the pot with them. If the garlic turns blue or black, the mushrooms are toxic, and you cannot eat them."

The technique of using a garlic clove to determine the toxicity of mushrooms has been reported by several members of the older group, and it appears that this method may also be applicable for identifying the toxicity of other mushroom species (Fig. 12).

Fig. 12.

Foraged Macrolepiota procera in Valdera

In Valdera, mushrooms such as Boletus edulis and Amanita caesarea are highly prized for their culinary value. These species are often consumed raw, harvested while still firm to preserve their pleasant crunch when eaten as a salad, sometimes complemented with cheese to enhance the flavor. However, not all mushrooms are collected from woodlands. Species like Agaricus bisporus, Armillaria novae-zelandiae, and Cyclocybe aegerita (a local favorite) are also foraged, though their consumption varies among informants. Agaricus bisporus, for example, was only recently added to some locals’ diets, typically after a recommendation from a neighbor. Grown in grassy patches near houses or agricultural fields, specific rules guide their gathering. One informant shared:

"I only recently started consuming the mushrooms after a neighbor pointed them out. I had never realized they were edible, and used to kick them around in the field. But after seeing the neighbor's survival, I started picking them and cooking them it’s really good! However, I never picked them under olive trees, as they are believed to be poisonous there."

The belief that mushrooms under olive trees are toxic was confirmed by multiple informants, though additional details were scarce, suggesting further investigation into the unique status of olive orchards could be valuable.

Cyclocybe aegerita, another favorite, is often found on poplar tree stumps, where it is regularly foraged. This mushroom is one of the few considered firm enough to preserve"sott'olio"(in oil). One informant described actively cultivating the mushrooms by pouring pasta water onto the poplar stump:

"I found a poplar stump near my house where mushrooms grew, so I cultivated them by watering it with pasta water nearly every day. The salt didn't affect them, they grew just fine."

Certain mushrooms, like Craterellus cornucopioides and Macrolepiota procera (Fig. 13), are dehydrated and powdered to flavor pasta and meat dishes, considered delicacies. While Boletus edulis is also dehydrated for stews and broths, it is not ground into powder like the former species.

Fig. 13.

Snails consumed at home in Valdera

Transmission of knowledge: mushroom hunting and truffle hunting

Mushroom foraging is a practice rarely shared with outsiders, with gathering spots kept secret by experienced mushroom hunters. This secrecy makes it challenging for newcomers, especially those without familial knowledge, to expand their foraging skills. As a result, younger generations often rely on friends or “professionals” to acquire these costly wild ingredients. Additionally, widespread media reports of mushroom poisoning have cultivated a fear that discourages younger locals from engaging in the practice, despite many expressing a desire to learn how to identify mushrooms.

Truffle hunting, another highly specialized activity in Valdera, is equally secretive. One informant, a shop owner and truffle hunter since the age of 16, has relied on his trained dogs to find truffles in the region's forests. At 82, he still hunts occasionally, recalling one notable experience when he searched for truffles all night after his flashlight died, navigating solely by his dog and the moonlight:

"One night, my torch ran out of battery, so I had to search in complete darkness until dawn, guided only by my dog and the occasional moonlight through the canopy... I knew the forest well, so I wasn’t afraid of getting lost, just worried about twisting my foot in a hole. After that, I always carried a backup torch."

His detailed knowledge of the local flora helps him pinpoint areas likely to host truffles. For example, Tuber magnatum grows near walnut, willow, sycamore, poplar, hazelnut, and apple trees, while Tuber melanosporum and Tuber burchii thrive under pine and fir trees. The truffles are gathered and sold to local resellers, a business that has become industrialized, with large companies hiring multiple hunters to supply truffles for both national and international markets.

Truffle hunting, more secretive than mushroom foraging, is another practice passed down within families. This knowledge remains relatively confined, contributing to the exclusivity of the activity, though it is highly remunerative for those who engage in it.

Aquatic animals: practices, disappearance, and knowledge transmission

Fishing and the collection of aquatic animals have traditionally been essential activities for the people of Valdera, occurring in local rivers, ponds, and lakes. These practices were often gendered, with younger generations of men primarily engaging in fishing with rods, practicing catch-and-release, while the older generations also foraged for wild bivalves and small fish, employing more labor-intensive techniques. For example, wild bivalves like Unio ulungatulus (locally known as"arselloni") were collected from riverbeds, where the sand revealed small holes that could be dug out by hand:

"We would find the arselloni on the riverbank in the sandy parts. You could see small holes in the sand, and we would dig to collect them. I used to go catch them with my uncle and cousin in Peccioli, and we would keep them in fresh water for a couple of days before cooking them."

Despite their once widespread availability, Unio ulungatulus is now considered rare, with some interviewees claiming they no longer eat them due to the river's poor water quality:

"The arselloni were always near the reeds, but I think they’re gone now. The water’s disgusting, so I wouldn’t eat them anymore."

Beyond bivalves, other aquatic species, such as Barbus barbus and Squalius squalus, were caught using traditional techniques, including disturbing the water to confuse the fish and direct them into makeshift traps or canals. Anguilla anguilla (European eel) hunting involved the construction of creels made from woven olive branches, which were used to trap the fish. One informant described how:

"We would catch the fish with our hands. When the river created shallow pools, we would stir the water to make it murky, so the fish couldn’t see us, and we would grab them by hand… The small fish were great when deep-fried."

Interestingly, river crabs (Potamon fluviatile) were reported only by the oldest informants, while others had no knowledge of them, except for a neighbor who occasionally consumed them.

The younger generation of Valdera residents reports a significant decline in the availability of aquatic animals like Anguilla anguilla and Unio ulungatulus, largely due to the polluted condition of the rivers. This sentiment was echoed by older generations, who observed that the community once took greater care of the river, but that responsibility has now faded. One informant noted:

"No one takes care of the river anymore. It’s really dirty. When I was a kid, we could drink from the river, but now you can’t even eat the fish from it."

The pollution of the river is part of a broader shift away from the river as a source of food and leisure, reflected in the lack of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) among younger locals. Despite some expressed interest, particularly among young men, in learning to fish or reconnect with these traditions, the practice is rarely passed on due to a lack of time, modern distractions, and a general sense of disconnection from the rivers.

Frogs, once commonly found in the local diet, have similarly disappeared from daily meals. They were traditionally caught in ponds or small lakes known as"Pelaghi"and sometimes raised in small pools on farmland. One informant described the complex preparation method used:

"We used to catch frogs, skin them, and leave them in the cold stream overnight to swell before frying them. It was a way to make sure there was enough for the whole family."

The consumption of frogs is now largely relegated to local festivals (Sagras) or restaurants, with younger generations viewing them as an exotic dish rather than a staple of the local diet. The older generation, however, recalls frogs as an integral part of their culinary heritage, with some even referencing the town of Fabbrica as"Granocchiai"(frog eaters), indicating both the gastronomic importance of frogs and possibly some cultural judgment attached to the practice.

Hunting birds

The countryside surrounding family homes in Valdera traditionally supported both wild and cultivated ecosystems, providing ample opportunities for hunting and gathering [70]. In particular, the spaces between forests and agricultural lands acted as biodiversity reserves, which served as sources of food. Older generations of locals, particularly those who grew up in rural settings, recall a time when bird hunting occurred within the bounds of the household. One such practice involved climbing ladders to the roof to gather fledgling Passer domesticus chicks from their nests before they could fly. These birds, often still featherless, were either fried or skewered and consumed whole:

"Me and my dad would climb up a ladder, raise the roof tiles, and collect chicks, passing them down to the women of the family. There were so many nests at the time, and they used to make such a noise. Sometimes we would also shoot them with a shotgun. Now, there are nowhere near as many."

The younger generations, however, have not experienced this practice, although the consumption of adult Passer domesticus still persists. Other small birds, often protected by law, are hunted illegally and prepared, typically roasted or grilled, depending on size. The taste of these birds is often described as delicate, which is a significant factor in their continued hunting despite legal restrictions:

"Gli uccelli di becco fino sono i migliori" (Birds with smaller beaks are the best).

This category includes birds like Erithacus rubecula (robin), Fringilla coelebs (chaffinch), Carduelis carduelis (goldfinch), and Sylvia atricapilla (blackcap), all of which are protected. While some interviewees acknowledged the illegal hunting of these species, many hunters expressed opposition to such practices and confirmed that these birds are now rare in their usual hunting areas. Among all game birds, Phasianus colchicus (pheasant) remains the most widely known and is still hunted and consumed in the region. It is the only bird species out of the 34 commonly hunted that is bred in captivity and released for hunting purposes in various areas of Tuscany. One informant described the preparation of pheasant broth:

"We also make pheasant broth, but we prefer using female birds; they are fatter and make an amazing broth that you should try!"

Interestingly, while Erithacus rubecula and Fringilla coelebs are considered the most favored, Passer domesticus (sparrow) was often described as having unpleasant meat.

It appears that sparrows were consumed not for their taste but as a means to enhance food security, though their recent consumption may be better understood as an emotional connection to food traditions.

Other less favored birds, such as Turdus philomelos (song thrush) and Sturnus vulgaris (starling), were typically boiled to soften the tough meat. Hunters even marked seasonal changes through bird hunting. Here, both hunting knowledge and culinary knowledge are intertwined, as the thrush is considered of lower culinary value, while the redwing is more appreciated. The ability to distinguish between the two species, primarily based on the red stripe under the wing of the Turdus iliacus, is a critical skill passed down through generations.

Younger generations rely heavily on hunters to supply traditional games like Sus scrofa (wild boar), Phasianus colchicus (pheasant), and Capreolus capreolus (roe deer), but do not engage in the hunting practices themselves. Techniques like using"Tagliole"traps, once common in vineyards, vegetable gardens, and olive groves, are no longer practiced by the younger group, especially by boys who once used to operate them. As a result, both hunting skills and local game knowledge are dwindling, with fewer new participants joining the activity.

Despite legal protection, the consumption of small birds is in sharp decline. Hunters agree that bird populations have decreased, largely due to land-use changes such as the expansion of monocultures and the widespread use of pesticides, rather than climate change or over-hunting. Younger locals, on the other hand, often express disgust at the idea of eating small, hunted birds, with many viewing them as unappealing or even repulsive. Ultimately, the decline in bird hunting and the gradual disappearance of associated practices reflect both the impact of environmental change and the erosion of intergenerational knowledge. While legal protections have been put in place to ensure the survival of certain species, this also means that much of the LGK surrounding bird hunting is no longer being passed down, much like other traditional food practices in the area.

The game mammals of the garden

One of the most esteemed game meats in the region is Hystrix cristata (porcupine) considered a delicacy by many for its tender, flavorful meat. Though traditionally seen as a garden pest due to its nighttime raids on crops like potatoes, the porcupine is still occasionally hunted, despite being protected by law. It is not uncommon for the animals to be hit by cars, and their carcasses are rarely wasted. Rather, they are either consumed by the driver or shared with friends who know how to cook them:

"I've had it many times in the past; they used to eat the crops, so we would shoot them with the shotgun and cook them."

Some interviewees expressed a strong aversion to eating it, particularly after seeing the skinned animal, as its paws resemble those of a human child, which they found disturbing:

"I had it once, but won’t have it again, it disturbs me. When it’s skinned and cooked, the paws look too much like kids'hands."

Others, however, enjoyed preparing it in various ways, from grilling to slow-cooking it in a wood oven or as “Cacciatora style” stew, often with plenty of spices to balance its sweet, gamey flavor:

"I tried it in a few ways, even chopped into steaks! The meat is beautiful and sweet, the best game meat!"

This love for porcupine meat is reflected in its frequent culinary uses, such as grilling, cooking in wood ovens, or preparing it as a stew with tomatoes and olives. Among the interviewees, only a few younger women expressed disgust toward the idea of consuming it.

Another local delicacy that has nearly vanished from the tables of modern families is Erinaceus europaeus (hedgehog), once a common dish in the area. This small mammal was often hunted with the help of dogs, especially in the fall when the animals would feed on fallen apples, sweetening their meat. The traditional preparation involved blanching the hedgehog in boiling water to remove the tough spines, then skinning and chopping it. The meat was often cooked with tomato sauce, wine, and aromatic herbs. The tougher, cartilaginous skin, referred to as"Cotenna,"was considered the best part:

"The dogs usually found them; we would go out in the moonlight. We cooked them many times in the fall, after the apples had fallen off the trees, because the meat was sweetened by the apples."

Despite its former popularity, hedgehog consumption is now rare. Many younger individuals find the idea of eating it distasteful, and even some hunters avoid it. The decline of hedgehogs is often attributed to agricultural chemicals that destroy their food sources, such as slugs and snails.

Though some older residents still set traps around their gardens to protect crops from Hystrix cristata, the active hunting of these animals has largely faded from local practices. When Hystrix cristata is accidentally hit by cars, locals typically avoid letting it go to waste, with drivers either consuming it themselves or passing it on to friends skilled in preparing it. Given that the porcupine can weigh up to 20 kg, it is typically cooked for a group, as its size makes it difficult to prepare for just one person.

Although younger informants rarely hunt Hystrix cristata, many have tasted its tender meat in local restaurants, where such game meats are considered specialty dishes. Similarly, the culinary tradition surrounding Erinaceus europaeus is largely lost, with only two younger individuals having eaten it, often for the novelty of experiencing exotic meats. For most, the idea of eating hedgehog provokes either surprise or outright disgust. Overall, these once-common game mammals now hold a marginal place in local culinary traditions, with their consumption in decline as younger generations show less interest in preserving these practices.

Wild snails and their gastronomic value in the study area

Snails are a commonly mentioned ingredient in local culinary traditions, particularly enjoyed by both younger and older generations. Several species of gastropods are consumed, with Eobania vermiculata and Cantareus apertus being the most beloved due to their small size, which contrasts with the preferences of northern Italian and French cuisines.

The larger Cornu aspersum is typically used to bulk up meals, alongside the smallest species, Theba pisana, which is also collected to prevent crop damage. Older interviewees shared fond memories of gathering snails in various environments such as olive orchards, often following rainy days or early morning dew. The most cherished species was described as the"marugiola"(small green snails), which had firm, flavorful meat:

"We would definitely eat snails more than steaks! There are four species, the marugiola is the best, the shell is green, and the best part is that the meat is outside the shell, making them easier to pick."

Snail gathering was not only about the types of snails but also the right time and place. Locals knew the best times for collection, using sayings to pass down knowledge:

"If you want to live an extra year, eat snails in May; if you want to live a bad year, eat snails in April.""If you want to die, eat snails in April."

These sayings reflected practical knowledge: snails collected in April are typically fragile after emerging from overwintering, making it difficult to cook without the risk of breaking shells and causing injury.

Snails require a purification process before consumption, which can last from two days to a week. This involved either withholding food from the snails or feeding them white flour to clean out their digestive systems. After depuration, the snails could be prepared in various dishes such as roasted on charcoal, in pasta sauces, or in stews like"Cacciucco"with tomato sauce. The older generation often flavored their dishes with Clinopodium nepeta, an herb that mothers and grandmothers would gather near the home. The combination of snails and Clinopodium nepeta was cherished, and eating them separately felt unusual to the older informants:

"We always used Clinopodium nepeta with snails, and it felt strange to eat them without it."

Younger generations have reported a decline in the knowledge of gathering, preparing, and consuming snails. Although many ate snails in their youth, they are no longer part of the regular diet, and the traditional methods of purifying them have been largely forgotten. One young woman, who had consumed snails while pregnant, shared an interesting myth related to their consumption:

"I find eating snails disgusting, but I consumed them when I was pregnant to avoid the risk of my child being born with a small penis, you know, acting like a snail."

Such beliefs about food preventing birth defects were not uncommon, especially among women, who also consumed wild boar, deer, and porcupine for similar reasons:

"When I was pregnant, my friends organized a dinner to ensure I ate things that would prevent birth defects. I hated the flavor, but I had to eat them."

This symbolic connection between food and the prevention of birth defects is widespread and warrants further study, as it could help understand why certain endangered species continue to be consumed [67].

Regarding the use of Clinopodium nepeta, this traditional pairing has lost its gastronomic value, with younger generations either never having tasted it or forgetting its significance. Only older interviewees from the"< 55 Group"remember using it, usually in preparations made by mothers or grandmothers. The knowledge of where to find the herb and how to use it has largely disappeared, along with the herb’s unique taste, smell, and appearance.

Possible causes of changing local gastronomic knowledge (LGK) in Alta Valdera

The Alta Valdera, like much of central Italy, has experienced significant changes in both lifestyle and land use, which have profoundly impacted local ecosystems and traditional practices [23]. The more prominent cause for the decline in foraging is the socio-economic shift in Valdera. Historically, most locals were farmers or land workers, providing food for their families year-round. With the rise of urbanization, many people moved away from agricultural work and transitioned to industry jobs, which limited their time and access to local lands for gathering [71, 72]. Simultaneously, supermarkets made it easier to purchase imported and exotic foods, reducing the need to rely on wild products. Woodlands in the region, while still present, have also shifted in their role, now mostly used for recreational purposes rather than as sources of food [73]. Older locals remember the loss of certain wild food plants growing areas and wild strawberries due to deforestation, though these memories are fading [74]. This complex interplay of factors has led to a shift in the local diet and a decline in traditional knowledge surrounding local plants. To preserve the region's cultural heritage and ecological knowledge, it is crucial to address both environmental changes and the ongoing socio-economic transitions in Alta Valdera.

Limitations of the study

Several limitations should be acknowledged in this study. First, sampling bias is a concern, as the data were collected from specific populations and regions in Central Tuscany, potentially limiting the representation of the full ethnobotanical diversity across the area. Recalling bias may have also influenced the results, as the study relies on oral knowledge and perceptions, which could be affected by memory inaccuracies or selective recall.

Ecological data, such as climate, were sourced from existing databases, which may not capture the microclimatic differences that influence plant distribution in more localized areas. Animal and fungi species identification was conducted using links to folk nomenclature only. Additionally, the study reflects a snapshot of current ethnobiological remembered and practice knowledge when the study was conducted, without accounting for seasonal variations. This study is based on a relatively small sample size, which limits the generalizability of the findings. As a preliminary study, it provides valuable insights into the changes in the ethnobiological knowledge of wild food plants in Valdera, but it is not definitive. Future research with a larger and more diverse sample size is necessary to validate and expand on the findings. Additionally, further studies could explore each factor influencing the decline of wild food plant knowledge in more depth, addressing specific aspects such as land-use changes, climate factors, and shifts in cultural practices. Each of these factors could be examined as a separate study to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play.

Conclusions

This study offers critical insights into the transformations of ethnobiological knowledge in Tuscany, with a focus on the foraging and culinary use of wild food plants. By comparing data collected in 2024 with a previous ethnobotanical survey from 2004, we reveal a gradual erosion of local ecological knowledge, particularly among younger generations, and a concurrent narrowing of the wild plant repertoire used in daily life. These changes are closely linked to broader socio-economic shifts, including urbanization, changes in land use, the decline of traditional agricultural practices, and reduced intergenerational knowledge transmission.

While certain wild plant taxa remain embedded in the local food culture, many others, especially wild leafy greens, seasoning herbs, and snack plants, have seen a marked decline. This underscores both the fragility and the resilience of traditional ecological knowledge in the face of rapid cultural and environmental change. The resurgence of interest in foraged ingredients among chefs, consumers, and food entrepreneurs represents a double-edged sword: on the one hand, it may offer opportunities for cultural revitalization and biodiversity conservation; on the other, it raises concerns about the commodification of local knowledge and unsustainable harvesting practices.

To address these challenges, we propose a multi-pronged approach. First, ethnobotanical knowledge must be safeguarded through community-driven educational initiatives, including the integration of traditional ecological knowledge into school curricula and agricultural training programs. Second, national and regional policies should support sustainable foraging practices through legal frameworks, certification systems, and local stewardship models. Third, future interdisciplinary research must go beyond descriptive accounts to critically examine the issue of knowledge loss, the ecological status of declining taxa, and the evolving meanings of wild foods in contemporary society.

Ultimately, the conservation of traditional foraging knowledge is not only a matter of cultural heritage, but also a vital component of sustainable food systems, biocultural diversity, and rural resilience. Tuscany, with its rich gastronomic legacy and botanical diversity, has the potential to serve as a model for integrating traditional knowledge into modern sustainability agendas. Strengthening these connections between people, plants, and place will be essential to ensure that traditional wild food practices do not disappear but evolve responsibly into the future.

Author contributions

M.A. Conceptualization, Methodology, Conducted Software Analysis and Visualisation, Writing Original Draft and Review; N.S. Conceptualization, Methodology, Review, and Editing the Manuscript. V.G. Data collection, Data curation, Review, and Editing; M.M. and S.W.G. Data curation and A.P. Conceptualization, Data curation, Review and Editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the University of Gastronomic Sciences, Pollenzo, Italy.

Data availability

Data supporting the reported results are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethics approval and consent to participate. The study adhered to the International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics (https://www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core-programs/ise-ethics-program/code-of-ethics/, accessed on March 12, 2025). Before conducting interviews, verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants. Participants were fully informed about the research purpose, methods, and their rights, including those to withdraw from the study at any time.

Consent for publication

All informants allowed us to share their opinions and photographs for publication. In addition, the ethical guidelines and rules of the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) (http://www.ethnobiology.net/) were strictly followed. 

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.