Nomophobia as an Emerging Psychopathology Psychophysiological Mechanisms and Clinical Implications

Abstract

Background

The phenomenon of anxiety stemming from the absence of a smartphone or mobile device, known as nomophobia, has become increasingly prevalent in contemporary society. This condition is particularly pronounced among young adults and is associated with several adverse psychological outcomes, including depression, anxiety, stress, somatic complaints and anxiety- related disorders.

Purpose

This study aims to examine the prevalence of nomophobia and its psychopathological correlations.

Methods

The study sample comprised N = 200 college/university students and working adults in the age group of 18–25 years. The Nomophobia Scale, developed by Yildirim and Correia (2015), and the short version of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) by Morey (1991) were employed. The research utilised SPSS-26, a quantitative analysis software, and applied descriptive statistics along with Pearson Product-Moment correlation and simple linear regression.

Findings

The results indicated a significant positive correlation between nomophobia and certain subscales of psychological symptoms, such as depression, somatic complaints, anxiety, and anxiety- related disorders. And Nomophobia significantly predicted psychopathologies among young adults.

Introduction

In today’s rapidly evolving world of science and technology, smartphones have become indispensable in our daily routines. They offer instant access to information on any subject, anytime and anywhere. With just a simple ‘touch’, they enable communication and information gathering, enhancing convenience and efficiency in our lives. Consequently, smartphones are increasingly integral to people’s lives, resulting in a rise in their ownership. Initially, mere communication devices, they have now become crucial in both personal and professional spheres. The term ‘nomophobia’ describes the intense fear of being without a smartphone. Those afflicted with nomophobia experience severe anxiety when they lose their phone, run out of battery, or cannot connect to the network, and they harbour an irrational fear of leaving home without their device. ¹ Despite our heavy reliance on them, smartphones profoundly influence our attitudes and behaviours. While they have simplified our lives, they have also given rise to nomophobia, a new psychological disorder. The term was first coined by the Postal Service in England in 2008. A study by Bahi and Delulis in 2015 ² revealed that 53% of participants felt anxious when they were out of coverage, lost their smartphones, or had their batteries die. Nomophobia is recognised as a disorder prevalent in modern technology-driven societies, marked by discomfort, anxiety, nervousness, or distress when individuals are without their mobile phones. It is broadly defined as the psychological distress of being disconnected from technology. ³ Emerging as a modern form of phobia, nomophobia surfaced during the digital age4^–6 and has proliferated with the widespread use of smartphones. The term originated in England, combining ‘non-mobile’ and ‘phobia’, to describe the discomfort, anxiety, and fear of being without a mobile device or access to one when needed.^{7, 8} Essentially, nomophobia is the anxiety associated with being disconnected from the digital world. ⁹ One of the initial research efforts to identify a valid scale for measuring nomophobia involved creating a specific questionnaire. Since the introduction of this nomophobia questionnaire, the number of studies in this field has grown significantly. There are four main dimensions or causes of nomophobia: (a) anxiety about being unable to connect with others; (b) fear of not having communication; (c) fear of not receiving information immediately; and (d) fear of losing the conveniences provided by smartphones. ¹⁰ In the 21st century, one of the most notable non-drug dependencies is the heavy reliance on cell phones. A growing number of college students are spending over 9 hours daily on their phones, which may lead to smartphone addiction. This scenario illustrates ‘a paradox of technology’, where individuals can be both freed and ensnared by technology, as they become engrossed in the virtual world while ignoring the physical one. ¹¹ Nomophobia is a type of psychopathology that impacts mental health and overall well-being. Similar to other addictions, it involves compulsive behaviour that adversely affects one’s life. ¹² There can be many reasons for smartphone addiction, but one of the main reasons is the growing popularity of gaming, and it adversely effects the mind and body, this condition is known as Internet Gaming Disorder. ¹³

Today’s young adults are used to utilising digital media for development, communication, interaction, entertainment, and socialisation. Some even find digital interactions more attractive than face-to-face contact. ¹⁴ This preference can lead to alterations in cognition, behaviour, and physiology. ¹⁵ Research has shown that nomophobia is linked to increased levels of depression and anxiety, indicating it could be a risk factor for mental health problems. ¹⁶

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) reported that in 2022, there were over 8.58 billion mobile subscriptions globally, while the world’s population was 7.95 billion at the midpoint of the year. India ranks as the second-largest with 659 million users in terms of mobile phone ownership globally after China (Maistre Le Ray, 2024). ¹⁷ According to Nielsen (2023), there are at least 700 million active internet users in India. Of these, 295 million are located in metropolitan areas, while 425 million are registered in rural regions. ¹⁸ Additionally, Kemp (2023) reports that India has 398 million active social media users. ¹⁹ It is noteworthy that mobile phones required only two decades to amass a substantial user base, in contrast to landline connections, which necessitated nearly a century to reach one billion customers. Many individuals own multiple mobile phones and SIM cards, often accompanied by a power bank. If this is not a sign of insecurity, then what is? This phenomenon is partly attributed to nomophobia. Nowadays, smartphones offer instant access to social networking platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp, along with GPS, games, various applications, news, weather updates, and YouTube. Consequently, people develop an emotional bond with their phones, akin to a family member. A survey carried out among undergraduate students in Health Services revealed that 23% of the 547 male participants were identified as having nomophobia, while 64% were prone to getting this issue. Nearly 77% of the students look at their phones more than 35 times daily. ²⁰ An additional study indicated that over half of those with nomophobia never turn off their mobile devices, and 61% of individuals look at their smartphones upon awakening in the morning. ²¹

Causes of Nomophobia

There are some studies through which one can find out what the causes of nomophobia are. These are as follows^22–24

• Nomophobia has been associated with certain demographic factors (such as being young), personality traits (like extraversion and neuroticim), emotional aspects (such as the fear of missing out), and distinct necessities (like the need for physical contact).

• A person who walks out without his/her phone or without thinking about it could get a persistent worry.

• Nomophobia is caused by several factors, including the length of time spent using smartphones, reliance on social media and the internet, compulsive and obsessive behaviours, social connections and mental well-being, mindfulness, and demographic elements such as gender, job status, parents’ educational background, and educational attainment.

• People may experience this dread in particular when they lack control or self-discipline, when they get tired easily or get irritable, when they do not have access to resources and activities that provide healing, entertainment, etc.

Effects of Nomophobia

The physical and psychological effects of nomophobia are as follows:

• Physical Effects of Nomophobia

  There are also disadvantages associated with this communication technology, as nomophobia adversely affects individuals’ physical, social, and psychological well-being. The issue of whether the undue and increasing use of mobile phones exposes individuals to radio frequency radiation, thereby posing a risk to their personal health, has recently emerged due to the thermal and non-thermal effects of these devices. In addition to the well-documented adverse effects such as headaches, fatigue, stressful days, restless nights, diminished concentration, dizziness, hot spots in or around the ears, facial dermatitis, and frustration, mobile radiation has been demonstrated to cause an increase in seizures in children with known epilepsy, neurogenic cancers, and hypertension. ²⁵

  According to Iberdrola, common physical effects include headaches, stomach pains, eye strain from excessive screen time, and wrist and neck discomfort from poor posture. Blue light from phones reduces sleep secretion. ²⁶ In certain severe instances, individuals might experience physical symptoms such as panic attacks, difficulty breathing, shaking, perspiration, a rapid heartbeat, pain in the joints of the hands, as well as discomfort in the neck and back, among other issues. ²⁷ Previous research has established a correlation between nomophobia and a range of health concerns Notara et al. (2021) suggests that excessive smartphone usage is correlated with a variety of adverse psychological, emotional, social, and physical effects. ²⁸ The most frequently reported adverse effects include eye strain, headaches.^{29, 30}

• Psychopathological Effects Nomophobia

  Smartphones have revolutionised our methods of communication, learning, and entertainment. Yet, their widespread presence can result in compulsive usage and the development of nomophobia. The relentless flow of notifications and updates can instil a sense of immediacy and a fear of missing out, which may impact psychologically. The severity will not vary regardless of whether it is called nomophobia, problematic smartphone use, smartphone addiction, or mobile phone addiction. While communication technology plays a significant role in everyday life, excessive smartphone use can result in psychological problems. ²⁹ Recent studies have concentrated on the link between smartphone addiction and psychological issues. ³⁰ Various psychological challenges, such as stress, extroversion (the desire for social interaction and communication), emotional instability (difficulty in setting boundaries and managing online communication), low self-esteem, lack of discipline, and demographic factors like age and gender, have been associated with addiction. ³¹ Elevated levels of nomophobia are linked to a higher risk of anxiety and depressive symptoms; studies consistently show a connection between nomophobia and anxiety, depression, and substance use disorders. ³²

Objectives

O1: To find out the level of nomophobia.

O2: To study the relationship between nomophobia and Psychopathologies (Somatic complaints, Anxiety, depression and anxiety-related disorders).

O3: To predict psychopathologies (Somatic complaints, Anxiety, depression and anxiety-related disorders) from nomophobia in young adults.

Hypotheses

H₁: There will be a significant level of nomophobia among young adults.

H2: There would be a negative relationship between nomophobia and psychopathologies (Somatic complaints, Anxiety, depression and anxiety-related disorder).

H3: Nomophobia would predict psychopathologies (Somatic complaints, Anxiety, depression and anxiety-related disorders) in young adults.

Materials and Methods

Research Design

This study employed a correlational design to explore the possible association between the variables being studied, namely nomophobia and psychopathologies.

Sampling Technique

The research proposes to use non-probability convenience sampling.

Sample: A sample of N = 200 students enrolled in colleges/universities and working adults from the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Punjab and Delhi were included in the study.

Inclusion Criterion

• a) Participants must have possessed smartphones or mobile phones with internet connectivity for at least six months.

• b) Participants between the ages of 18 and 25 years.

• c) Participants who do not have any pre-diagnosed psychopathologies.

• d) Participants who agreed to fill out the study’s questionnaires and evaluations.

Tools to be Used

Nomophobia questionnaire (NMP-Q) ¹⁰ developed by Yildirim and Correia (2015) comprises 20 items and is self-administered by the participants. Participants were categorised into four groups based on their total scores: mild (21–59), moderate (60–99), severe (100–140), and no nomophobia (20 or less).

The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI), developed by Laslie Morey (1991), is a Self-Administered Inventory designed to collect data on critical client factors in behavioural health care. The PAI comprises 344 items, organised into 22 distinct, non-overlapping scales. In this study, subscales of PAI named Somatic complaints, depression, anxiety and anxiety-related disorder were used. ³³

Procedure

The research involved 200 young adults, aged 18–25, mean age of 21.5 were selected. After building a rapport with the participants, they were provided with questionnaires designed to evaluate their levels of nomophobia and psychopathologies, including somatic complaints, depression, anxiety and related disorders. Participants were given clear instructions on how to complete the questionnaire, and once finished, the completed forms were collected and scored based on the respective manuals. The data was organised into a table for subsequent statistical analysis.

Statistical Analysis

SPSS software version 26.0 was used for all statistical analysis, and 200 students and working adults in all were enrolled in the study. Descriptive statistics were employed to summarise the research population’s baseline characteristics. Pearson product correlation was used to analyse the relation between depression, somatic symptoms and anxiety with nomophobia. And simple linear regression analysis was applied to predict the psychopathologies from nomophobia. These tests were two-tailed, and statistical significance was defined at p < .05.

Result Analysis and Discussion

Figure 1 summarized the graphical representation of nomophobia level have a total of 200 young adults within the age range of 18–25 years get involved. According to research depicting the chronicity level of nomophobia, 67% and 19% of those in the sample had moderate and severe levels of nomophobia, respectively, whereas 12.8% of the sample had mild nomophobia. The findings indicate that most young adults in the research displayed moderate degrees of nomophobia; only 1.3% of participants did not have nomophobia (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Level of Nomophobia.

Table 1 showed nomophobia, with an overall mean score of 82.57, represents the highest average among the dimensions, indicating the general prevalence of this trait within the sample. Among the subdimensions, the inability to access information scores the highest with a mean of 25.36, identifying it as the most significant factor. Conversely, losing connectedness, with a mean of 20.52, has the lowest score, suggesting it has a relatively lesser impact. Skewness and kurtosis values across dimensions are nearly zero, indicating distributions close to normal, except for slight deviations, such as the moderate negative skewness observed in the inability to communicate.

Table 1. Table Showing the Descriptive Statistics of Dimensions of Nomophobia.

	Nomophobia	Not Being Able to Communicate	Losing Connectedness	Not Being Able to Access Information	Giving Up Convenience
Mean	82.57	14.44	20.52	25.36	22.25
Std. Deviation	22.34	4.37	6.02	7.93	6.57
Skewness	−0.583	0.336	−0.445	−0.332	−0.321
Std. Error of Skewness	0.122	0.122	0.122	0.122	0.122
Kurtosis	0.031	0.690	−0.270	−0.305	−0.574
Std. Error of Kurtosis	0.243	0.243	0.243	0.243	0.243

The data indicate that anxiety (ANX) has the highest mean score, whereas somatic symptoms (SOM) have the lowest. The standard deviations show that score variability is relatively consistent across the different variables. Skewness values near zero suggest that most distributions are nearly symmetrical. Slightly negative kurtosis values imply that the distributions are somewhat flatter than a normal distribution (see Table 2).

Table 2. Table Showing the Descriptive Statistics of Psychopathologies.

	Mean	Std. Deviation	Skewness		Kurtosis
				Std. Error		Std. Error
SOM	51.77	17.123	0.023	0.122	−0.748	0.243
ANX	56.87	16.493	−0.215	0.122	−0.624	0.243
DEP	54.86	15.222	0.030	0.122	−0.416	0.243
ANT	53.75	16.495	0.110	0.122	−0.777	0.243

Table 3 illustrated the correlation among nomophobia its dimensions and psychopathologies. there is a positive association between nomophobia and various psychopathologies (SOM, ANX, DEP, and ANT), meaning that as nomophobia increases, so do somatic complaints, anxiety, depression and anxiety related disorder such as phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder and traumatic stress. Difficulty in accessing information and a loss of connectivity are the most significant indicators of Nomophobia and its associated psychological symptoms.

Table 3. Showing the Correlation Between Dimensions of Nomophobia and Somatic Complaints, Anxiety, Depression and Anxiety-related Disorder.

	Nomophobia	SOM	ANX	DEP	ANT
Nomophobia	1	0.112**	0.194**	0.375**	0.195**
Not being able to communicate	0.815**	0.115*	0.168**	0.321**	0.144**
Losing connectedness	0.905**	0.105*	0.237**	0.179**	0.199**
Not being able to access information	0.926**	0.0.082	0.166**	0.203**	0.180*
Giving up convenience	0.895**	0.125*	0.135**	0.184**	0.175**

Note: *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The linear regression analysis explored the predictive link between nomophobia and several criterion variables, namely ‘somatic complaints’, ‘Depression’, ‘Anxiety’, and ‘Anxiety-related disorder’ aspects. The coefficient of determination (R ² ) values reveal the extent to which nomophobia can explain the variance in these criterion variables. For ‘Somatic Complaints’, nomophobia accounted for 4.5% of the variance (R ² = 0.0.05), indicating that it was a significant predictor of somatic complaints. In terms of ‘Anxiety’, nomophobia explained 29.8% of the variance (R ² = 0.298), with a regression coefficient showing a predictive relationship with Anxiety. Nomophobia accounted for 15.5% of the variance (R ² = 0.155) in Depression, suggesting a predictive association with Depression. For the ‘Anxiety-related disorder’ function, nomophobia explained 4.1% of the variance (R ² = 0.41), indicating statistical significance but with a relatively low R ² value. This suggests that nomophobia was a significant predictor of psychopathologies, except for somatic complaints, explaining a substantial portion of the variance. In conclusion, the linear regression analysis results showed that nomophobia had varying levels of predictive power for different psychopathologies. It was a strong predictor of anxiety and depression, a moderate predictor of anxiety-related disorder and somatic complaints (Table 4).

Table 4. Simple Linear Regression Analysis for Predicting Psychopathologies (Somatic Complaints, Anxiety, Depression and Anxiety-related Disorder) From Nomophobia.

		R 2	β	F	Sig
Psychopathologies	SOM	0.045	0.224	5.56	p > .05
	ANX	0.278	0.509	131.94	p < .01
	DEP	0.155	0.354	54.44	p < .01
	ANT	0.041	0.195	14.55	p < .05

Conclusion

To sum up, this study’s results suggest that nomophobia negatively impacts the mental health of young adults, leading to anxiety, anxiety-related disorders, depression, and somatic symptoms. The primary factors are the limited access to information and losing connectivity, underscoring a significant reliance on mobile devices for both social engagement and practical applications. These findings add to the expanding field of cyberpsychology and offer insights that could guide the creation and execution of preventive measures. Thus, this study emerges as a clarion call for counsellors, parents, educators, and policymakers to awaken to the profound influence of excessive smartphone use on the tapestry of young adults’ lives. By confronting the spectre of nomophobia, we can nurture a tech-savvy generation that wields technology with wisdom and purpose, all while safeguarding their mental well-being and weaving stronger social bonds.

Limitation and Future Direction

Although the study’s findings are promising, several limitations must be acknowledged. It is crucial to conduct high-quality research, especially long-term studies with randomised controlled trials. Additional research is advised to explore the effects of nomophobia on both young and working adults, aiming to develop treatment or prevention strategies that consider individual personality traits.

Authors’ Contributions

All authors involved in the conception and design of the study have reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Statement of Ethics

Ethical approval is not applicable as consent was taken from all human participant and there were no animal subjects used.

Informed Consent

Written informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the set in the study.